ATM NETWORKS

Introduction
Network must be able to transfer user traffic
throughput and low delay

with High

High throughput can be achieved by congestion control and

avoidance mechanisms
High speed of operation can be achieved by reducing the delay
experienced by the packet between source and destination.

Total delay experienced by the packet between source & destination.

Transmission delay +Propagation delay+Queuing delay
+Processing delay.

Transmission delay =
Size of the packet / Transmission rate.

Processing delay : Time taken by the switch

to process the packet
Small size packets reduces Transmission
delay and processing delay.

Propagation delay = Distance between source and destination

/Speed of electrical signal.
High speed channels can be used to reduce propagation delay.

Queuing delay : Time for which the packet

is stored in the buffer before it gets processed
Fixed size packets reduces queuing delay.
If size of the packet is fixed processing time is same for all the arriving
packets
Number of parallel switches can be used there by queuing delay can be
reduced.

Features of ATM Networks :

1. Small size packets called cells.
1. 2. Fixed size cells.
3. Virtual circuit switching.
4. Statistical multiplexing.
5. Supports both real time and non- real time
traffic.
6. Supports 622.08 Mbps data rates
13.

ATM cell has 5 bytes header and 48 bytes payload

48 bytes

5 bytes
Header

payload

53 bytes

Features of ATM Networks :

1. Small size packets called cells.
1. 2. Fixed size cells.
3. Virtual circuit switching.
4. Statistical multiplexing.
5. Supports both real time and non- real time
traffic.
6. Supports 622.08 Mbps data rates
13.

Advantages of Fixed size cells.

1.Simpler buffer hardware.

Easy to estimate the buffer space required

2.Maximize parallelism.
Processing time is same for all the
arriving cells

Number of parallel switches can be

used to increase the speed of operation

3.Simpler line scheduling.

Scheduler can be operated in packet mode
complex byte mode operation can be avoided

4.

Fair Resource allocation.

Buffer space and link bandwidth and
processing time can be allocated fairly
among the competing flows

Multiplexing using different frame sizes

Multiplexing using cells

Disadvantages :
1.Segmentation and reassembly is required.
2.Resources are not effectively utilized.
If the user data is less than 48 bytes
redundant bits are added.

Features of ATM Networks :

1. Small size packets called cells.
1. 2. Fixed size cells.
3. Virtual circuit switching.
4. Statistical multiplexing.
5. Supports both real time and non- real time
traffic.
6. Supports 622.08 Mbps data rates
13.

Virtual Circuit Switching

- Provides Connection oriented service
- Logical connection is established between
source and destination.
- Cells are delivered in order.
Cells are stored at each switch.
Cell delivery is not guaranteed.
Cells follow same route.

- Dynamic bandwidth allocation

- Bandwidth can be allocated
based on the requirement.
- Speed conversion is possible
- Incoming rate and outgoing rate at
the switch need not be the same.

VCI phases

Types of virtual circuit connections

Permanent virtual circuits :
Provides Permanent virtual circuit connection between end
points
Connection remain for months and years.
No connection establishment and release phases.
Switched virtual circuits : set up dynamically as needed
and disconnected immediately as the session ends.
.

ATM logical connections : logical

connections (Virtual circuit connections)
between end points is accomplished through
Transmission path
Virtual paths
Virtual circuits

TP, VPs, and VCs

Note:
Note that a virtual connection is defined
by a pair of numbers:
the VPI and the VCI.

Connection identifiers

An ATM cell

Transmission path.
It is the Physical connection (wire,cable, satellite link
etc..) between an end point and a switch or between
two switches
Transmission path contains a set of virtual paths
Virtual paths : Provides a connection or a set of
connections between two switches.
Virtual path contains a set of virtual circuits.

Virtual paths and virtual circuits are identified

by VPI and VCI.
Advantages of virtual paths
Simplified network architecture
Increased Network performance and reliability
Reduced processing and connection set up time
Enhanced network services

Virtual connection identifiers in UNIs and NNIs

Example of VPs and VCs

Routing with a switch

Switch and table

Source-to-destination data transfer

Features of ATM Networks :

1. Small size packets called cells.
1. 2. Fixed size cells.
3. Virtual circuit switching.
4. Statistical multiplexing.
5. Supports both real time and non- real time
traffic.
6. Supports 622.08 Mbps data rates
13.

TDM is a digital multiplexing technique to combine data.

Synchronous TDM

Statistical multiplexing or
Asynchronous time division multiplexing.
-Bandwidth is effectively utilized.
- High speed of operation can be achieved.

ATM multiplexing

Features of ATM Networks :

1. Small size packets called cells.
1. 2. Fixed size cells.
3. Virtual circuit switching.
4. Statistical multiplexing.
5. Supports both real time and non- real time traffic.
6. Supports 622.08 Mbps data rates
13.

Service categories

Real time services.

Constant bit rate.(CBR)
Real time variable bit rate. (rt-VBR)
Non-real time services
Non-Real time variable bit rate.(nrtVBR)
Available bit rate service (ABR)
Unspecified service (UBR)

CBR : Used by applications that

transmit data at fixed rate.
Tight upper bound on transfer delay.
Ex : Uncompressed audio & Video
streams.
VBR : This service is used by
applications which transmit data at
variable rate.
Tight upper bound on transfer delay.
Ex : Compressed audio & video.

VBR - nrt : Used by the applications that have

bursty traffic characteristics.
Do not have tight constrains on delay and
delay variations.
Ex : Application that have critical response time
requirements such as airline reservation, banking
transactions etc.,

ABR :
Application that can tolerate variable delays and
cell loss.
feed back is given to source at the time of
congestion.
Ex : FTP & email.

Constant-bit-rate traffic

Variable-bit-rate traffic

Bursty traffic

Traffic Descriptors : (User related)

Peak cell rate (PCR)
Sustainable cell rate (SCR)
Minimum cell rate (MCR)
Maximum burst size(MBS)
Cell delay variation Tolerance (CDVT)

QoS parameters: (Network related)

Cell error ratio(CER)
Cell loss ratio(CLR)
Cell mis-insertion rate(CMR)
Cell transfer Delay (CTD)
Cell delay variation (CDV)

ATM layers

ATM layers in endpoint devices and switches

ATM layer

ATM headers

AAL1

AAL2

AAL3/4

AAL5

Congestion control in ATM networks

Open loop congestion control mechanisms

Admission control
Resource reservation

Admission control
When a host wants a new virtual circuit
describes the traffic characteristics and the service expected.
The network then checks to see if it is possible to handle
this connection without adversely affecting existing
connections.

If no route can be located, the call is rejected .

Resources reservation :

Resources are reserved in advance usually at call setup

time.

Since the traffic descriptor gives the peak cell rate, the
network has the possibility of reserving enough bandwidth
along the path to handle the rate.

Congestion Control in ATM

Call-level controls
Cell-level controls

Call-Level Control
An example of the call-level approach to
congestion control is call admission control
Tries to prevent congestion by not allowing
new calls or connections into the network
unless the network has sufficient capacity to
support them

Call-Level Control (Contd)

At time of call setup (connection
establishment) user request for the
resources that are needed for the duration of
the call (e.g., bandwidth, buffers)
If available, call proceeds
If not, call is blocked
E.g., telephone network, busy signal

Cell-Level Control
Also called input rate control
Control the input rate of traffic sources to
prevent, reduce, or control the level of
congestion

Cell Marking Scheme

station can transmit the cell and mark it as
Green or Blue
Green (CLP = 0)

Blue (CLP = 1)

Selective Cell Discard (SCD)

A cell-level control mechanism in ATM
switches called selective cell discard can be
implemented quite easily using a CLP
threshold on each queue/buffer
Below the threshold, switch can accept both
green and blue cells
Beyond the threshold, switch can only
accept green cells

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

Buffer in an ATM switch

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

Buffer in an ATM switch

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

Some cells
waiting to go

Buffer in an ATM switch

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

CLP
Threshold

Buffer in an ATM switch

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

CLP
Threshold

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

CLP
Threshold

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

CLP
Threshold

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

CLP
Threshold

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

CLP
Threshold

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

CLP
Threshold

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

CLP
Threshold

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

CLP
Threshold

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

CLP
Threshold

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

CLP
Threshold

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

CLP
Threshold

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

CLP
Threshold

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

CLP
Threshold

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

CLP
Threshold

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

CLP
Threshold

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

CLP
Threshold

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

CLP
Threshold

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

CLP
Threshold

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

CLP
Threshold

Selective Cell Discard (Contd)

CLP
Threshold

Explicit Congestion Notification

There are some proposals to use reactive
congestion control approaches for end-toend flow control in ATM
One of the mechanisms proposed is called
Explicit Forward Congestion Notification
(EFCN) (or EFCI, for Explicit Forward
Congestion Indication)

EFCI: Basic Operation

Switches can detect the onset of congestion
(e.g., buffers filling up)
Switches set a control bit in cell headers to
indicate this congestion condition
Sources react by reducing the volume of
traffic that they are sending through that
switch
Suitable for VBR or ABR traffic

EFCI: Basic Operation (Contd)

Traffic
Sink

Traffic
Source
Switch

Switch

Switch

EFCI: Basic Operation (Contd)

Traffic
Sink

Traffic
Source
Switch

Switch

Buffer

Switch

EFCI: Basic Operation (Contd)

Traffic
Sink

Traffic
Source
Switch

Unoccupied

Switch

Switch

Occupied

EFCI: Basic Operation (Contd)

Traffic
Sink

Traffic
Source
Switch

Switch

EFCI Threshold

Switch

EFCI: Basic Operation (Contd)

Traffic
Sink

Traffic
Source
Switch

Switch

Data
Cell

EFCI Threshold

Switch

EFCI: Basic Operation (Contd)

Traffic
Sink

Traffic
Source
Switch

Switch

EFCI Threshold

Switch

EFCI: Basic Operation (Contd)

Traffic
Sink

Traffic
Source
Switch

Switch

EFCI Threshold

Switch

EFCI: Basic Operation (Contd)

Traffic
Sink

Traffic
Source
Switch

Switch

EFCI Threshold

Switch

EFCI: Basic Operation (Contd)

Traffic
Sink

Traffic
Source
Switch

Switch

EFCI Threshold

Switch

EFCI: Basic Operation (Contd)

Traffic
Sink

Traffic
Source
Switch

Switch

EFCI Threshold

Switch

EFCI: Basic Operation (Contd)

Traffic
Sink

Traffic
Source
Switch

Switch

EFCI Threshold

Switch

EFCI: Basic Operation (Contd)

Traffic
Sink

Traffic
Source
Switch

Switch

EFCI Threshold

Switch

EFCI: Basic Operation (Contd)

Traffic
Sink

Traffic
Source
Switch

Switch

Switch

!!!
EFCI Threshold

EFCI: Basic Operation (Contd)

Ack
Cell

Traffic
Source
Switch

Switch

EFCI Threshold

Switch

Traffic
Sink

EFCI: Basic Operation (Contd)

Traffic
Sink

Traffic
Source
Switch

Switch

EFCI Threshold

Switch

EFCI: Basic Operation (Contd)

Traffic
Sink

Traffic
Source
Switch

Switch

EFCI Threshold

Switch

EFCI: Basic Operation (Contd)

Traffic
Sink

Traffic
Source
Switch

Switch

EFCI Threshold

Switch

EFCI: Basic Operation (Contd)

Traffic
Sink

Traffic
Source
Switch

Switch

!!!

EFCI Threshold

Switch

Congestion control in ATM networks

Open loop congestion control mechanisms
Admission control
Resource reservation

Closed loop congestion control algorithms

Fast resource management
Immediate transmission mode
Delay based rate control
Binary feed back scheme
Forward explicit congestion
notification
Backward explicit congestion
notification
Explicit rate feedback
Proportional rate control algorithm

Admission control :
When a host wants a new virtual circuit describes
the traffic to be offered and the service expected.
The network then checks to see if it is possible to
handle this connection without adversely affection
existing connections.
Multiple potential routers may have to be examined to
find one, which can do the job.
If no route can be located, the call is rejected.

Resources reservation :
Resources are reserved in advance usually at call
setup time.
Since the traffic descriptor gives the peak cell rate ,
the network has the possibility of reserving enough
bandwidth along the path to handle the rate.
Bandwidth can be reserved, making sure that the
total bandwidth required along a line is less than
the capacity of that line.

Rate based congestion control :

Network sends signal to the sender to slow down
transmission rate temporarily until the network can
recover.
It is in the interest of the network to tell the sender to
decrease the data rate, otherwise it may drop the data
cells.

Sender transmits a special cell called RM (Resource

Management cell. This travels along the same path as
the data cells.
But is treated specially by the switches along the way.
When it gets to the destination, it examined, updated
and sent back to the sender.
An RM cell may include many fields :
DIR (Directions) : It indicates the direction
of the cell, 0 for forward and 1 for backward.

ER (Explicit Rate) :This field is used to limit

the source allowed cell rate to a specific value.
CI (Congestion Indication ) : It allows a network
element to indicate that there is congestion, so the
source shall decrease its rate.
NI (No Increase) : It is used by network element
to indicate impending congestion and so to prevent
a source from increasing its CCR. It does not imply
any decrease of the source rate.

Fast resource management

Initially source sends a resource management cell
requesting the desired bandwidth before actually sending
the cells.
If switch cannot grant the request, it simply drops the
cell.
Source times out and resends the request.

If the switch can satisfy the request, it passes the RM

cell on to the next switch.
Finally, the destination returns the cell back to the source,
which can transmit the burst.
Burst has to wait for at least one round trip delay.
This can be solved using immediate transmission mode.

Immediate transmission mode:

Burst is transmitted immediately by source following the
RM cell.
If switch cannot satisfy the request, it drops the RM cell
and the burst and sends an indication to the source.
If it can satisfy the request, sends the RM cell and the
burst to the next switch.
Destination receives burst and RM cell.
RM cell is sent back to the source.
Source receives RM cell and it sends the next burst and
RM cell.
There may be excessive loss during congestion because
the burst is transmitted along with RM cell.

Delay based rate control:

Source monitors the round trip delay by periodically
sending the RM cells that contain time stamp.
Destination receives the RM cells and returns them
to the source.

After receiving the RM cell from the destination,

the source uses time stamp to estimate the level
of congestion and adjusts the data rate accordingly.

Switch forwards the cells to the next switch and

destination receives the data cells.

there is no explicit feed back from the network.

So level of congestion cannot be predicted exactly.

Forward explicit congestion

notification(FECN)

i). Source sends data cell, which contains PTI

field
in the cell header.
If the switch is congested EFCI bit of the
cell header is set and switch forwards the cell to
the destination.
iii)Destination returns RM cell (in which CI bit is
set) to the source to notify the congestion.

Source after receiving RM cell reduce its cell rate to

half.
v)if the switch is not congested EFCI bit is not set.
vi) CI bit in the RM cell is not set and destination
returns it to source.
vii). Source doubles the cell rate.
congestion is not notified to the source immediately.
RM cell will be returned to the source only from the
destination.

FECN

Backward explicit congestion notification (BECN):

i).Switch sends data cell.

ii).If the switch is congested it sends the RM cell to
the source to notify congestion, by setting CI bit of
the RM cell.
iii).Source after receiving RM cell reduces its cell
rate by half.

iv). If Switch is not congested it will send the RM cell to

the source by setting CI =0

v).

Source doubles the transmission rate.

BECN

Proportional rate control algorithm:

As opposed to the negative feedback approach
adopted by the FECN nd BECN schemes, the proportional
Rate Algorithm (PRACA) is based on positive feedback
rate control paradigm.
Algorithm :
i) Source sends data cells with FEC I state =0 and reduces
data rate continuously.
ii) If Switch is not congested it will not set EFCI bit and
forwards the cells to the destination.
iii). Destination returns RM cell to the source.

iv) After receiving RM cell source increases its rate proportional to

the cell rate.
v).

If the switch is congested it sets EFCI bit to 1.

vi). Destination after receiving marked cells with EfCI=1,

it sends the RM cells to the source
vii.Switch remove RM cells in the backward direction.
viii)Source continuously reduce cell rate for a VC are
proportional to the current cell rate.

Frame Relay network

Note:
VCIs in Frame Relay are called DLCIs.

Frame Relay layers

Note:
Frame Relay operates only at the
physical and data link layers.

Frame Relay frame

Note:
Frame Relay does not provide flow or
error control; they must be provided by
the upper-layer protocols.

Three address formats

ATM switch Architecture

8x8 ATM switch contains 8 input ports and 8 out put ports

ATM switch : To route the cells to the appropriate

destination
At each switch cell passes through an input Port,
output port and switching fabric of ATM switch.
Output port corresponding to an input port is
determined by the translation table.

Input Port Controller (IPC) :

Accepts the cell incident at the I/P port
Depending on its VCI output port is assigned
by looking up the translation table.
Output port controller (OPC) :
VCI is assigned to the cell by
looking up the translation table

Control Processor :
Make sure that all the input controllers present their cells to
the switching fabric in a single time slot.
Its clock and cell management mechanism make sure that
the cells get transmitted to the O/P port in a single time slot

ATM Switching Architecture depends on the strategy of

buffer management
Input buffering
Output buffering
Combination of Input and output buffering.

Interconnection Networks

Networks with 2x2 switches(BSE)

Multistage Networks
Banyan networks
Shuffle exchange
Delta
n-Cube
Non blocking
Batcher banyan network
Rearrangeable
Bens networks

Properties of Banyan Networks

NxN Banyan Network has Log2 N Stages
N - Input / Output terminals
Each stage has N/2 switches.
Each basic switching element has each 2 inputs
ports and 2 out put ports.
Banyan Networks possess Self routing, Blocking
and Unique - Path properties.

Properties of Banyan Networks

Self Routing : the type of routing where routing
bits themselves control the setting of switches
If the Input bit is 0
If the Input bit is 1

Inlet gets connected

to the upper outlet
Inlet gets connected
to the lower outlet

Unique Path Property : Only one path is available

from any Input to any output

Blocking : Blocking occurs wherever the

routing bits incident at the two inlets of 2x2
switching elements are identical

2- Shuffle or perfect shuffle is used between the stages of

shuffle exchange network

Bens Network
NXN Bens Network has 2 log 2 N 1) Stages,
Bens Network can establish non blocking
connections.
Bens Network from 2nd to (n-1) th Stage
consists of two identical sub networks
upper and lower.
Each Sub network is an N/2XN/2 Network.

Cross bar switches

Single Stage
Multistage
Three stage Clos
Rearrangeable clos networks

Cross Bar switch contains a set of horizontal

and vertical wires
A. set of horizontal and vertical contact points
are connected to these wires.
The contact points are mechanically mounted on
a set of horizontal and vertical bars.
Bars are attached to a set of electromagnets.
If the electromagnets are energized a contact is
established.

Cross bar switches are non- blocking .

N connections can be established in non
blocking Manner
In (NxN) square cross bar switch there are N2
Cross points

Demerits of single stage cross bar Switch

Inlet to outlet connection is established through a
Single cross point.
Each individual cross point can be used for only one
inlet /outlet pair
.

If a cross point fails associated connection can not be

established.

Cross points are inefficiently used

Large No. of cross points are required

Three stage Clos Network