SHELLS

THEORY OF
STRUCTURES

GROUP MEMBERS
ANJALI KOLI
ANOUSHKA SHARMA
KANISHKA SHARMA
LIPIKA AGGARWAL
SHUBHAM GUPTA
TEJASVI KAUR

INTRODUCTION
A shell is a type of structural element which is characterized by its
geometry, being a three-dimensional solid whose thickness is
very small when compared with other dimensions. A shell
structure is a thin, curved membrane or slab, usually of
reinforced concrete, that functions both as structure and covering,
the structure deriving its strength and rigidity from the curved
shell forms.
Essentially, a shell can be derived from a plate by two means : by
initially forming the middle surface as a singly or doubly curved
surface and by applying loads which are co planar to a plates plane
which generate significant stresses. Shell structures predominantly
resist loads on them by direct compression. That is without bending or
flexure.

TYPES:
Since
most materials are more effective in compression than in
Single
curvature
shells, curved
one linear
axis, are
bending,
shell structures
result on
in lesser
thickness
thanpart
flatof
structures
cylindrical or cone in the form of barrel vaults and conoid shells.
Double curvature shells are either part of a sphere, as a dome, or a
hyperboloid of revolution.

THIN CONCRETE SHELLS

The thin concrete shell structures are a lightweight construction

composed of a relatively thin shell made of reinforced concrete,
usually without the use of internal supports giving an open
unobstructed interior. The shells are most commonly domes and
flat plates, but may also take the form of ellipsoids or cylindrical
sections, or some combination thereof. Most concrete shell structures
are commercial and sports buildings or storage facilities.

There are two important factors in the development of the thin

concrete shell
structures:

The first factor is the shape which was developed along the history of
these constructions. Some shapes were resistant and can be
erected easily. However, the designers incessant desire for more
ambitious structures did not stop and new shapes were
designed.

The second factor to be considered in the thin concrete shell

structures is the thickness, which is usually less than 10
centimeters. For example, the thickness of the Hayden planetarium

Shells belong to the family of arches, vaulted halls and domes. We can
understand that a vault is a shell with one singly curved surface and a
dome is a shell with doubly curved surfaces.

A saddle shell has also doubly curved surfaces, but with a difference. If
we cut a dome in two directions at right angles to one another, both
cuts are convex curves. If we cut a saddle shell in the same way, one
curve is convex and the other is concave.

Examples ;
Hyperbolic paraboloids and hyperboloids

Shells are generally made out of reinforced concrete : from 40m (130
ft) to 73 m in span. However, people have materialize the form of shells
with space frames, lattices and membranes, allowing larger spans (up
to 200 meters.)

HISTO
RY

The Roman Pantheon, as it stands today in the centre of the city of Rome,
really is a remarkable and imposing structure. The Pantheon is a
masterpiece of ancient shell construction and has withstood for almost
two-thousand years. Today, the span of 43 m still impresses the
engineering profession. The Pantheon, built in the early 2nd century A.C.,
approximately 125, is the largest unreinforced dome in the history.

MEMBRANE
BEHAVIOUR
The membrane behaviour of shell structures refers to the general state of stress in a shell
element that consists of in-plane normal and shear stress resultants which transfer loads
to the supports. In thin shells, the component of stress normal to the shell surface is
negligible in comparison to the other internal stress components and therefore neglected
in the classical thin shell theories. The initial curvature of the shell surface enables the
shell to carry even load perpendicular to the surface by in-plane stresses only.
The carrying of load only by in-plane extensional stresses is closely related to the way in
which membranes carry their load. Because the flexural rigidity is much smaller than the
extensional rigidity, a membrane under external load mainly produces in-plane stresses.
In case of shells, the external load also causes stretching or contraction of the shell as a
membrane, without producing significant bending or local curvature changes. Hence,
there is referred to the membrane behaviour of shells, described by the membrane
theory.
Carrying the load by in-plane membranes stresses is far more efficient than the
mechanism of bending which is often seen by other structural elements such as beams.
Consequently, it is possible to construct very thin shell structures. Thin shell structures
are unable to resist significant bending moments and, therefore, their design must allow
and aim for a predominant membrane state. Bending stresses eventually arise when the
membrane stress field is insufficient to satisfy specific equilibrium or deformation
requirements.

Material Effects on Shell Behaviour

Reinforced concrete shells have complicated nonlinear material
behaviour with strong influence on the structural behaviour.
Significant tensile stresses in the shell will cause cracking and with
that weakening of the shell cross-section.
Micro-cracking at the surface is caused by the evaporation of water.
Due to the high amount of surface exposed the micro-cracking in the
shell surface may exceed the allowable value.
Furthermore, creep of concrete will cause flattening of the shell
surface, resulting in less curvature and possible bending stresses to
occur. Additionally, shrinkage may lead to unwanted residual stresses.

CYLINDRICAL CONICAL SHELL

Cylindrical
Shell

Conical
Shell

Conical Shell is a shell

Cylindrical Shell is a shell
that is a structure about
that is a structure about
an axis non-parallel to
an axis parallel to the
the sides of an imaginary
sides of an imaginary
straight sheet.
straight sheet.
It is a stable structure for
It distributes wind load
standing high pressure
equally on the structure
winds.
sides.
They may be of wood, steel, plastic or reinforced concrete.
They may form the roof and containing walls for long span
structures.

BARREL
VAULTS

The elements of a barrel shell are:

(1) The cylinder,
(2) The frame or ties at the ends, including
the columns, and
(3) The side elements, which may be a
cylindrical element, a folded plate element,
columns, or all combined.
For the shell shown in the sketch, the end
frame is solid and the side element is a
vertical beam.
A barrel shell carries load longitudinally as a
beam and transversally as an arch. The
arch, however, is supported by internal
shears, and so may be calculated.
They maybe used as:
(1) Long-span structures
(2) Short-span structures

Cylindrical shell used in the roof are also known as barrel

shell or vault

These may
be of
multiple
numbers
joined
together to
increase

POSSIBLE METHODS OF JOINING

CYLINDRICAL CONICAL SHELLS

SANGATH,
AHMEDABAD

DELFT UNIVERSITY LIBRARY,

NETHERLANDS

SPHERICAL
DOMES

A dome is an architectural element that resembles the hollow upper

half of a sphere. There are also a wide variety of forms and specialized
terms to describe them. A dome can rest upon a rotunda or drum, and
can be supported by columns or piers that transition to the dome
through squinches or pendentives. A lantern may cover an oculus and
may itself have another dome.
A dome is a rounded vault made of either curved segments or a shell
of revolution, meaning an arch rotated around its central vertical axis.
Domes have a long architectural lineage that extends back into
prehistory and they have been constructed from mud, stone, wood,
brick, concrete, metal, glass, and plastic over the centuries. The
symbolism associated with domes includes mortuary, celestial, and
governmental traditions that have likewise developed over time.
The word "cupola" is another word for "dome", and is usually used for
a small dome upon a roof or turret. "Cupola" has also been used to
describe the inner side of a dome. Drums, also called tholobates, are
cylindrical or polygonal walls with or without windows that support a
dome. A tambour or lantern is the equivalent structure over a dome's
oculus, supporting a cupola.

BEHAVIOUR
As with arches, the "springing" of a dome is the point from which the
dome rises. The top of a dome is the "crown". The inner side of a
dome is called the "intrados" and the outer side is called the
"extrados". The "haunch" is the part of an arch that lies roughly
halfway between the base and the top.
A masonry dome produces thrusts down and outward. They are
thought of in terms of two kinds of forces at right angles from one
another.
Meridional forces (like the meridians, or lines of longitude, on a globe)
are compressive only, and increase towards the base, while hoop
forces (like the lines of latitude on a globe) are in compression at the
top and tension at the base, with the transition in a hemispherical
dome occurring at an angle of 51.8 degrees from the top.
The thrusts generated by a dome are directly proportional to the
weight of its materials. Grounded hemispherical domes generate
significant horizontal thrusts at their haunches.
Concave from below, they can reflect sound and create echoes. A
dome may have a "whispering gallery" at its base that at certain

TECHNIQUES & MATERIALS

When the base of the dome does not match the plan of the supporting
walls beneath it (for example, a dome's circular base over a square
bay), techniques are employed to transition between the two. The
simplest technique used is diagonal lintels across the corners of the
walls to create an octagonal base.
Another is to use arches to span the corners, which can support more
weight. A variety of these techniques use what are called "squinches".
A squinch can be a single arch or a set of multiple projecting nested
arches placed diagonally over an internal corner. Squinches can take a
variety of other forms, as well, including trumpet arches and niche
heads, or half-domes.
The earliest domes were built with mud-brick and then with baked brick
and stone. Domes of wood were allowed for wide spans due to the
relatively light and flexible nature of the material and were the normal
method for domed churches by the 7th century.
Wooden domes were protected from the weather by roofing, such as
copper or lead sheeting. Domes of cut stone were more expensive and
never as large, and timber was used for large spans where brick was
unavailable. Brick dome was the favoured choice for large space
monumental coverings until the Industrial Age, due to their

GRID SHELL DOME

Agrid shellis a structure which derives its strength from its double
curvature but is constructed of a grid or lattice.
The grid can be made of any material, but is most often wood or
steel.

Grid shells were pioneered in the 1896 by Russian engineerVladimir

Shukhovin constructions of exhibition pavilions of theAll-Russia
industrial and art exhibition 1896 in Nizhny Novgorod.

EXAMPLE
Louisiana Superdome, New Orleans
Architect: Curtis and Davis
Engineer: Sverdrup and Parcel
With a 680 ft diameter the Louisiana
Superdome is the largest dome in
existence.
Designed for 75,000 spectators, the
multipurpose arena serves many
functions from various sports events
to rock concerts and political
conventions.
The patented lamella dome structure
features a peripheral tension ring
truss.
A Tension ring
B Radial ribs
C Diagonal struts, parallel to radial ribs
D Hoop rings, combined with diagonal
struts,
form a diamond bracing grid
E Roof joists
F Metal deck

GEODESIC DOME
Walter Bauersfeld built the first
geodesic dome in 1922 for a
planetarium in Jena, Germany.
Buckminster Fuller developed his
geodesic dome for low-cost housing
1942.
A basic geodesic sphere, referred to as
single frequency, consists of 20
spherical triangles that form pentagons.
Dividing single frequency into more
units forms hexagons.
Frequencies: 1
2
3
4

1 Single frequency dome: 10 triangles

forming pentagons
2 Single frequency dome of 10 spherical
triangles
3 Two-frequency sphere
4 Two-frequency hemisphere dome
5 Four-frequency hemisphere dome
6 Football of 10 hexagons, 12 pentagons

EXAMPLE
US pavilion Expo 67 Montreal
Architect: Buckminster Fuller & Shoji
Sadao
The 250 feet diameter by 200 feet high
dome roughly presents a three-quarter
sphere, while geodesic domes before
1967 were hemispherical. The dome
consists of steel pipes and 1,900 acrylic
panels. To keep the indoor temperature
acceptable, the design included mobile
triangular panels that would move over
the inner surface following the sun.
Although brilliant on paper, this feature
was too advanced for its time and never
worked. Instead valves in the centre of
acrylic panels enabled ventilation.

EXAMPLE
Climatron, Missouri Botanical Gardens, St Louis (1959)
Architect: Murphey & Mackey
Engineer: Paul Londe
The dome of 175 feet diameter and 70 feet height permits tall palm
trees to tower above tropical streams, waterfalls and 1,200 species
of exotic trees and plants.
Temperature ranges 64 to 74 degrees and average humidity is 85
percent.

EXAMPLE

Spruce Goose dome, Long Beach,

USA
Architect: R. Duell and Associates
Engineer/builder: Temcor
This aluminium dome for Hughs
Spruce Goose(at 415 ft diameter
among the largest geodesic domes).
The dome of 15 geodesic frequencies
weighs < 3 psf.
The design had to provide a
temporary opening for the plane of
320 ft wing-span to pass through.
A Aluminium cover plate with silicone
seal
B Aluminium gusset plates, bolted to
struts
C Aluminium batten secure silicone
gaskets
D Triangular aluminium panels
E Wide-flange aluminium struts
F Stainless steel bolts

EXAMPLE
HPR dome, Walla Walla, USA
Architect: Environmental Concern, Inc.
Engineer/builder: Temcor
Aluminum dome of 206 diameter and
42 ft depth
(span/depth ratio 4.9), weighs less than
3 psf.

HYPERBOLIC
PARABOLOID

Formed by sweeping a convex parabola along

a concave parabola or by sweeping a straight
line over a straight path at one end and
another straight path not parallel to the first.
Structural behaviours
Depending on the shape of the shell relative
to the curvature, theere will be different
stresses.
Shell roofs, have compression stresses
following the convex curvature and the
tension stresses following concave curvate.

PROPERTIES

Hyperboloid structures are superior in stability

towards outside forces compared to "straight"
buildings, but have shapes often creating large
amounts of unusable volume (low space
efficiency) and therefore are more commonly
used in purpose-driven structures, such as
water towers (to support a large mass), cooling
towers, and aesthetic features.

Water tank hyperbolical

concrete shell structure

MIAMI MARINE
STADIUM

Preserving the Miami Marine

Stadium is a cast-in-place
concrete 100-meter long building
with an eight-section hyperbolic
paraboloid roof
It is 33-meter wide with a
cantilever of 20 meter over the
stands; one third of the structure
is built on piers into the water.
Used for motorboat racing and

CONCRETE SHELL

RCC & STEEL

STRUCTURE

The material most suited for construction of shell structure is

CONCRETE because it is a highly plastic material when first mixed
with water that can take up any shape on centering or inside
formwork.
Small sections or reinforcement bars can readily be bent to
follow the curvature or shells.
Once cement has set and the concrete has hardened the R.C.C
membrane or slab acts a strong, rigid shell which serves as both
structure and covering to the building.

TYPES AND
FORMS

Folded plates
Domes

Barrel shells

Translation shell

CENTERING OF SHELL

Centering is the term used to

describe the necessary temporary
support on which the curved R.C.C.
Shell structure is cast.

The centering of a barrel vault which

is a part of a cylinder with same
curvature along its length , is less
complex.

The centering of concoid, dome and

hyperboloid of revolution is more
complex due to additional labour
and wasteful cutting of materials to
form support for shapes that are not
of uniform linear curvature.

CONCRETE SHELL CONSTRUCTIO

Shells may be cast in place, or precast off site and moved into place
and assembled. The strongest form of
shell is the monolithic shell, which is
cast as a single unit.

Geodesic domesmay be constructed

from concrete sections, or may be
constructed of a lightweight foam
with a layer of concrete applied
over the top. The advantage of this
method is that each section of the dome
is small and easily handled. The layer of
concrete applied to the outside bonds
the dome into a semi-monolithic
structure.

Monolithic domes are cast in one piece

out of reinforced concrete and date back
to the 1960s. It is cost-effective and
durable structures, especially suitable

Monolithic dome in Alaska

Completed in 1963,
theUniversity of Illinois
Assembly Hall, located in
Champaign, Illinois was and is
the first ever concrete-domed
arena. The design of the new
building, by Max Abramovitz,
called for the construction of
one of the worlds largest edgesupported structures.

TheSeattle Kingdomewas the

world's first (and only) concretedomed multi-purpose stadium.
It was completed in 1976 and
demolished in 2000. The
Kingdome was constructed of
triangular segments
ofreinforced concretethat
were cast in place. Thick ribs

ADVANTAGES
Concrete shells are naturally strong structures, allowing wide areas
to be spanned without the use of internal supports, giving an open,
unobstructed interior.
The use of concrete as a building material reduces both materials cost
and a construction cost, as concrete is relatively inexpensive and
easily cast into compound curves.
The resulting structure may be immensely strong and safe; modern
monolithic dome houses, for example, have resisted hurricanes and
fires, and are widely considered to be strong enough to withstand
even F5 tornadoes.
Very light form of construction, to span 30m shell thickness
required is 60mm.
Dead load can be reduced economizing foundation and supporting
system.
Aesthetically it looks good over other forms of construction.

DISADVANTAGES

Since concrete is porous material, concrete domes often have

issues with sealing. If not treated, rainwater can seep through the roof
and leak into the interior of the building.

On the other hand, the seamless construction of concrete domes

prevents air from escaping, and can lead to buildup of condensation
on the inside of the shell. Shingling or sealants are common solutions
to the problem of exterior moisture, and dehumidifiers or ventilation
can address condensation.

Shuttering problem

Greater accuracy in formwork is required

Good labour and supervision is necessary

Rise of roof may be a disadvantage.

The Market Hall in Leipzig, Germany (1929) by Franz Dischinger

Hanging membranes by Heinz Isler

Thin-Shell Roof over gas station in Bern-Zurich Highway

Indoor Tennis Center in Heimberg, Switzerland

Petroleum Coke Bulk Storage - Pittsburg, California

OPAC Consulting Engineers