Evolution

Macroevolution/Speciation

Macroevolution
Macroevolution is the occurrence of
large-scale changes in the characteristics
(traits) of life -- in effect, the evolution of
species and higher taxa.
It is distinct from microevolution, which is
the sequence of changes that occur within
a single population.

 According to Charles Darwin and also

the modern synthesis, this distinction
is relative and purely a matter of
scale.
The modern evolutionary synthesis
(often referred to simply as the modern
synthesis), brings together Charles
Darwin's theory of the evolution of
species by natural selection with the
theory of genetics as the basis for
biological inheritance.

Proposed Mechanisms for

Macroevolution
Extrapolation of microevolutionary
processes......Gradualism.
The second way in which macroevolution is
believed to occur is through sudden and rapid
changes......Punctuated Equilibrium.

Tiny microevolutions, over

sufficient time, add up and
accumulate in isolated
populations and
eventually result in new

Based on the fact that there

are critical genes in all living
organisms, and a small change
in them could cause drastic
changes in the organism,
resulting in a new species

Too long of a time scale!

Whilst speciation events have been demonstrated in the laboratory
and observed in the field, really dramatic differences between species
do not usually occur in directly observable timescales (it occurs too
quickly for the process to be shown in the fossil record.)
It is argued that, since macroevolution can not be confirmed by a
controlled experiment, it cannot be considered to be part of a
scientific theory.
However, evolutionists counter that astronomy, geology, archaeology
and the other historical sciences, like macroevolution, have to check
hypotheses through natural experiments.
They confirm hypotheses by finding out if they conform or fit with the
physical or observational evidence and can make valid predictions. In
this way, macroevolution is testable and falsifiable.

How is it studied then?

Classical evidence of macroevolutionary
processes
fossils (extinction and radiation)
biogeography (global taxa distribution)
comparative biology

Phenetics and cladistics: tree-building

Molecular evolution and molecular
phylogenetics

The tree of life: stems and leaves

extant spp

biogeographic/
geological events
extinct spp

We need to infer the shape of the tree (evolutionary

relationships) from leaves (extant taxa) and
branches (extinct or fossil taxa), and from knowledge
of geological events ...
1. What was present, where? (Fossils)
2. What happened, when? (Geology, palaeoclimatology)
3. What is present, where? (Biogeography)

Determining evolutionary
relationships

Understanding structure similarities and

differences
Homologous structures from a common
ancestor based on descent
Analagous structures with similar functionality
but not dervied from common ancestor
Convergent and divergent evolution

Derived characters vs. Ancestral

How is it studied then?

Classical evidence of macroevolutionary
processes
fossils (extinction and radiation)
biogeography (global taxa distribution)
comparative biology

Phenetics and cladistics: tree-building

Molecular evolution and molecular
phylogenetics

Comparative Biochemistry
Many genes are found in all living things,
because we all use similar metabolism.
Genes can also be described as homologous
and analogous.
Considering homologous genes, the genes of
closely related species are or similar than genes
from more distantly related species. Increasing
time since the divergence of two species gives
increasing numbers of random mutations.

Cytochrome C is part of the electron transport system in the mitochondria. It

is found in all eukaryotes, and some aerobic prokaryotes as well. The
number of amino acid differences between the cytochrome c found in
different species is proportional to the time since they diverged.

Speciation
Speciation refers to the appearance of a new species of
life on earth.
Species occur when a parent species (also referred to as a
common ancestor) splits into two (or more)
reproductively-isolated populations
each of which then accumulates changes from sexual
reproduction and/or random mutation (in addition to any other
various contributors to genetic change)..........

until the populations are no longer capable of

interbreeding.

Macroevolution: Speciation
Process whereby new species arise
Generally one of two conditions
required:
Geographic barriers
Reproductive isolation

Cumulative process of drift and

selection acting over many generations

Reproductive Isolation Mechanisms

(Pre-zygotic (before mating) vs. post-zygotic (after mating)
Pre-zygotic
different breeding seasons (either yearly
or time of day)
different signals: sight, sound, smell,
behavior
mechanical problemsgenitalia dont fit
together
gametic isolation: sperm dont detect the
egg or cant fertilize it

Post-zygotic
hybrid inviability: hybrids dont survive
to birth or adulthood
hybrid sterility: as with the mule, a
sterile hybrid.

Even having hybrids that are

significantly less fit (able to survive and
reproduce) than purebreds is an
isolating mechanism, a way to prevent
the two populations from fusing into
one population.

horse
(fert.)

donk
ey
(fert.)

mule
(sterile
)

Allopatric Speciation: The Great Divide

The simplest and most common form of speciation
2 groups of one species are isolated geographically (mountains,
oceans, rivers).....
and diverge into separate species.

Or, the barrier develops slowly as conditions change: the gradual

formation of the Grand Canyon split a population into 2 isolated
groups, that have diverged into separate species, the Kaibab and
Albert squirrels.

Sympatric Speciation

Sympatric speciation means

speciation that occurs within
the same geographical location.

An example: cichlid fish in

Lake Barmobi Mbo in
Cameroon, Africaan isolated
volcanic lake.
Nine species, all more closely
related to each other (by DNA
evidence) than to similar fish
in other lakes.
Lake has no distinct
geographical zones, and the
fish can easily swim anywhere
in it.
They feed in different
locations, but all breed in the
same location, close to the
bottom.
The mechanism is not clear.

Rates and results of speciation

Isolation, low dispersal, strong sexual selection
and reductions in population size all favor
speciation
Speciation gives rise to adaptive diversity
According to the theory of punctuated equilibria
speciation has been the major source of adaptive
change as opposed to phyletic gradualism