Unit-6:- the concept of

Diplomacy
Group Assignment on the

treaty/agreement of 1902 and 1929 of Nile

water in light of diplomacy.

1. what were the purposes?

2. Who were the signatories?
1. the purposes:-the 1902 treaty
The main purpose of the treaty was to draw the
border line between Ethiopia and the Sudan.
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Group Assignment on
Nile
water

It was not an agreement that deals on the use of

Nile water.
It was only under article-111 that the issue of how to
use the Blue Nile/ Lake Tana is mentioned.
This article was understood by then Ethiopian
government and government of Britain differently.
- For the then Ethiopian government, it
meant
securing/maintaining the prior agreement
of
Britain government.

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.Group Assignment on
Nile water
- For the Britain government, it meant that Ethiopia
could not carry out any construction that arrest
the flow of except in agreement with Britain.

One can understand from the above

points that 1902 treaty cannot be used
for a purpose of water diplomacy by
Egyptians and other riparian countries.

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Group Assignment on Nile

water
1. The purpose:-the 1929
agreement
The purpose was to allocate Nile water

among Egypt and the Sudan

While Egypt secured 48 billon cubic meters
of the Nile water, the Sudan secured 4
billon cubic meters of the Nile water
Egypt was given the right to monitor the
Nile flow in the upperstrean countries.
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Group Assignment on Nile

water
2.The Signatories:- the 1902
treaty
The signatories of this treaty were
Ethiopia
led by Emperor Menilik and Great Britain
represented by col.
2.The Signatories:- the 1929 agreement
The signatories of this agreement were

between Egypt and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

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1. The Concept of
Diplomacy

1.1.Definition of Diplomacy

A number of practitioners and scholars have been

defining diplomacy based on their own perspectives and

ideological backgrounds.
This has contributed the lack of commonly accepted and
comprehensive understandings of the concept
diplomacy.
To understand properly the meaning of the concept
diplomacy at the level of this course, it is necessary and
appropriate to explore different definitions that were
provided in different literatures such as the following.
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..Definition of
Diplomacy
In our day to day social conversation or

interaction with each other, diplomacy

may refer to the use of tact to:* gain/achieve strategic advantages.
* find mutually/commonly acceptable solutions.
* rephrase statements in a polite manner.
* capitalize the agenda that favors all parties
* avoid personal attack
* remind ones past wrong doings..
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.Concept of
Diplomacy
a) Etymological definition
Etymologically the term diplomacy is

derived from the Greek word

diplono/diploma which refers to a two
folded paper or document that
enables city-states or nations to
conduct different affairs with one another
and develop agreement on their
respective interests.
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Concept of Diplomacy
In the old days of Roman Empire,

the word diplomacy was used to

describe official travel
document such as passports
and passes for imperial roads
which were stamped on double
metal plates.
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Concept of Diplomacy
b) Dictionary definition
In different Dictionaries, the term

diplomacy can be defined as:-

1. an art and practice of conducting

negotiations between sovereign states to
attain mutual interests and to secure
advantages without arousing hostility.
2. a means of establishing relationships among
countries in which each of them aim at carrying
out different affairs to the best interests.
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..The concept of
Diplomacy
3. a business of making and managing different
agreements, treaties , negotiationsetc
among different international actors mainly
sovereign states.
4. a skill and tact of dealing with people,
persuading them towards ones own national
interests and that of common interests.
5. a process of negotiations by which sovereign
states conduct their relationships and pursue
their purposes using different means short of war.
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..The concept of
Diplomacy
c) Comprehensive definition
Comprehensively, diplomacy can be understood as a

special form of official state activities with special

arts, skills of negotiation and using special means
and process of communication to be practiced by the
head of states, head of governments, ministers of
foreign relations, ambassadors, envoys and
delegations at international conferences.
In more recent times, use has been made of an official,
non-traditional diplomatic agents, including business
executives, religious figures, NGOs, academicians, &
individual citizens- commonly known as Track II, III and
Multi-track-diplomacy.
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..The concept of
Diplomacy
1. 2. Key Concepts of diplomacy
The following are the key concepts and jargons that

are frequently used by the practitioners and scholars

in the areas of diplomacy.
1. Diplomat-refers to an official in the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs who by virtual of his/her office takes a
direct part in the discharge of the ministrys functions
in the sphere of official contact with foreign states.
2. Ambassador-a diplomatic agent of highest rank.
More particularly the title is used in most cases, to
designate the head of a diplomatic mission to a
foreign state. By Mebrahtu W
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..The concept of
Diplomacy
3.Diplomatic Act- refers to an action or declaration by
state foreign affairs organs, attracting political or
international legal consequences. It may take a variety
of forms like the establishment of diplomatic relations,
the presentation of credentials, a declaration of
attitude, etc. Diplomatic documents (treaty, note,
memorandum, minutes, etc) are also included in
diplomatic act.
4. Diplomatic Agent- a diplomat, member of the
diplomatic staff of a diplomatic mission, a person who
by virtue of his/her post takes a direct part in the
discharge of the missions functions.
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..The concept of Diplomacy

5. Diplomatic Corps- refers to a totality of heads of
foreign diplomatic missions accredited in a given
state, the body of diplomats of all states, including
attachs, who are resident at one post.
6. Ad hoc diplomacy-a term which is sometimes used
to refer to diplomacy conducted by intermittent or
sporadic means, such as a roving ambassador or a
special mission.
7. Chancery- (1) the political section of a diplomatic
mission. (2) The premises where chancery staff work,
and thus a synonym for embassy or high commission.
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..The concept of
Diplomacy
8. Accredited diplomatic representativeanother way of describing a head of mission
or, more generally, a diplomatic agent.
Occasionally, however, it may be given as a
formal title to a representative to whom the
receiving state accords diplomatic privileges
and immunities, but who is not eligible for
diplomatic status because the sending entity
does not enjoy sovereignty, or because its
sovereignty is widely denied by other states.
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..The concept of
Diplomacy
9. Counter-intelligence- (1) the attempt to
destroy or weaken the effectiveness of foreign
espionage at its source, especially by
penetration of its services. This is the older
meaning of the term and the one still favored by
human professionals. (2) All methods, whether
active or passive, designed to protect a states
secrets from foreign intelligence gatherers
employing any means.
10. Credentials- A document which
authenticates a persons status and competence
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..The concept of
Diplomacy
11. Diplomatic asylum-the granting of refuge in
diplomatic premises to fugitives from the authority of the
receiving state where they are deemed by the sending
state to have given political rather than criminal offence.
12. Diplomatic flag- the flag used by a state on its
diplomatic premises and as the personal standard flown
on the means of transport used by its heads of mission.
13. Diplomatic language- special language employed in
an effort to minimize the provocation likely to be caused
by delivery of a sharp or unavoidably threatening

message.

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..The concept of
Diplomacy
14. Full powers-the capacity to sign a treaty, usually it
consists of a specific written authorization granted by a
state to one of its diplomatic agents. Such full powers
must be available for inspection by the other party or
parties to the treaty, and may be exchanged for theirs.
15. Diplomatic channels- the ways in which diplomats
communicate between countries -The message was
delivered by diplomatic channels.
16. Dollar diplomacy- the use of money to establish good
relations with other countries

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..The concept of
Diplomacy
17. Gunboat diplomacy- the attempt to
solve international problems by force or by
threatening to use force.
18. Shuttle diplomacy -diplomatic
negotiations by an official who travels
frequently between the countries involved.

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..The concept of
Diplomacy
1.3. Cynical views about diplomacy
Based on the legacy left behind by European

state system, the concept diplomacy was/is

associated with deceptive attributes.
The following are some of deceptive attributes
attached to diplomacy and diplomats by
different scholars and institutions. Diplomats: are labeled as honorable spies
carry patriotic act of the bribing and lying for

ones country
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..The concept of
Diplomacy
are a honest but shroud man sent abroad

to lie for his country.

have the ability to say and do the nastiest
thing in a nicest way.
conduct an act of considerable use of lies
and-diplomacy is taken as a noble lie.

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2. Historical Development of
Diplomacy

2.1. Early Development (around 431-404 B.C)

In different ancient literatures, it is indicated that

the practice of diplomacy was common in many

primitive societies.
As an example, the idea of diplomatic immunity is
known among the Australian aborigines. A
study of the diplomacy of primitive peoples
encompassing societies in Australia, Asia,
Africa and the Americas showed familiarity with
ideas such as messengers and envoys to maintain
intertribal relations
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..Historical Development of
Diplomacy
Some had beliefs that messengers are in

possession of a protecting taboo that should

not be violated.
Others received envoys and their messages
according to a given ceremonial.
Messengers were often selected not from
among the expendable members of the
society, but from the leading men and women
of the tribe.
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..Historical Development of
Diplomacy
Due to lack of a preserved written record, very little is

known about diplomacy in ancient history. While few in

number, there are references to diplomatic concepts
across many ancient societies, such as the Egyptians, the
Babylonians, the Hebrews, the Chinese and the Hindus.
Documents dating back to ancient Egypt have been
discovered that describe the exchange of envoys
between the Egyptian pharaohs and neighboring
monarchs.
Although the ancient Chinese did not encourage contacts
or relations with outsiders, records have been found that
describe protocol and rules to be used in such dealings
when they occurred
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.Historical Development
of Diplomacy
The Hindus also recognized the importance of

diplomacy as is shown by the following quote from

the Laws of Manu (an important Hindu text): "Peace
and its opposite (that is war) depend on the
ambassadors, since it is they who create and undo
alliances.
The ancient Greek societies were also known for
practicing diplomacy among the city-states. As
relations between the Greek city-states became
more sophisticated, so did the qualifications for
diplomatic representatives. By the sixth century
BCE, only the best orators were chosen to be
ambassadors.
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..Historical Development of
Diplomacy
The Greek system of diplomacy acted as a

foundation for that of the Roman Republic,

which grew over the next several centuries
and became the Roman Empire in 27 BCE. The
contribution of the Romans to diplomacy was
not to its practice, but to its theory. The
Romans stressed the importance of adhering
to agreements and treaties. Rather than
producing skilled negotiators, the Romans
produced a skilled archivists who specialized in
diplomatic procedures.
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..Historical Development of
Diplomacy
2.2. Renaissance Diplomacy
Early in the 14th century, a group of city-states

developed in Italy, but none could dominate the rest, all

feared conquest by the other. The rulers of most of the
city-states gained their positions through force and
cunning.
Because they could not count on the loyalty of their
subjects, these rulers hoped to maintain allegiance by
seeking foreign conquest and treasure.
They sought opportunities to increasing their power and
expand their domain and were always concerned about
the balance of power on the Italian peninsula.
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..Historical Development of
Diplomacy
Although Renaissance diplomacy was considered as

amoral, the Italian city-states developed a number of

institutions and practices that still intact such as:1. They introduced a system of permanent ambassadors
who represented the interest of their state by observing,
reporting, and negotiating.
2. Each state created a foreign office that evaluated the
written reports of the ambassadors, sent instructions,
helped to formulate policies, and kept vast records.
3. Together they developed an elaborate system of
protocol, privileges, and immunities for diplomats.
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..Historical Development of
Diplomacy
Ambassadors and their staffs were granted freedom
of access, transit, and exit at all times. Local laws
could not be used to impede an ambassador in
carrying out duties, but ambassadors could be held
accountable if they actually committed crimes, such
as theft or murder.
4. The concept of extraterritoriality was established
under this principle, an embassy in any state stood
on the soil of its own homeland, and anyone or
anything within the embassy compound was subject
only to the laws of its own country.
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..Historical Development of
Diplomacy
2.3. Diplomacy in the New European state
system
It was in the modern era (17 th) with the
consolidation of the nation state system that
diplomacy assumed a significant role in
international relations.
European state appointed diplomatic
representations to maintain their foreign
relations. Permanent embassy staffs were
recruited to collect and pass information of allies
and enemies on a systematic basis.
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..Historical Development of
Diplomacy
The states began conducting bilateral and

multilateral treaties and alliances signifying

emergency of international system in the form
we have today.
Recourse to war was a favorite among the states
of that period. This trend of conflict continued till
the 18th century. The peace of Westphalia was a
short term affairs.
The European system of diplomacy suffered its
trust shook when Napoleon attempted to
conquer Europe in the early 19 thc.
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..Historical Development of
Diplomacy
After Napoleons defeat, the European system was"

restored and no major wars occurred within Europe

for the next hundred years. European diplomats were
becoming more increasing learned professional.
The smear side of diplomacy-the bribing, lying,
and deceiving-was gradually replaced by code of
expected & acceptable condiment
The word diplomacy" was first introduced into the
English language by Edmund Burke in 1796, based
on the French word " diploamtie" or diplomatique".
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..Historical Development of
Diplomacy
2.4. The Modern Diplomacy
The three cordial principles on which the western state
system are based were state sovereignty, principles
of intentional law and balance of power system.
Since the treaty of Westphalia and the formation of
the court of European in 19th Century, international
politics has been based on the balance of power
system and role of the balancer.
Great Britain played the role of balancer during the
period up to the WWI and establishment of League of
Nation.
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..Historical Development of
Diplomacy
This state of affairs ended in 1914 when WWI

broke out. The Treaty of Versailles in 1919

established the first international organization
that was the League of Nations.
During this time, international relations began to
assume dynamic proportions and balance.
The subject matter of diplomacy became more
and more important as a discipline and chairs
and departments along with research center
came to be established in Great Britain and the
United States.
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3. Diplomacy Vs other
disciplines
Diplomacy borrows concepts and theories

from both foreign policy and international law.

This makes it rich in vocabulary and enables it
to cover wider issues taking place in
international system.

3.1. Diplomacy Vs Foreign Policy

Foreign policy is the substance/the content

and diplomacy is a method-modes operandito be conducted through persuasion,

negotiation, compromise and threat of force.
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Diplomacy versus other

disciplines
Diplomacy is the process through which foreign policy
activities are carried out and political relationships
among states and non-state actors can be concluded.
As a tool of foreign policy, diplomacy can employ the

following methods.

1. Harmless/kindly tools like: ambassadorial representation/ correspondence,

communication through international
organizations,
humanitarian aid and different supports
foreign investment, trade and commerceetc.
NB:- mostly used by democratic developing countries.
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Diplomacy versus other

disciplines
2. Coercive/forceful tools like: threats
tariffs,
embargoes,
espionage
sabotage,
clandestine military actions

NB:- mostly used by developed

nations
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Diplomacy versus other

disciplines

By using diplomacy, a state might engage in one

of the following activities to project its interests.

1. A state might express its interests to a target state either

publicly or privately, indicating the nature of relations.
2. A state might suggest that a better relationship would
follow if the target state's actions are changed in to common
interests.
3. A state might threaten that negative consequences will
follow
if the target state continue to move in a contrary direction.
4. A state might turn to an international body to seek
multilateral support of other states.
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Diplomacy versus other

disciplines
3.2.Diplomacy Vs International Law
a) International Law/IL
IL is Wider than diplomacy in scope- includes war.
IL is an outcome of diplomatic negotiations
IL deals with the acquisition of territory, state immunity & the

legal responsibility of states in their conduct with each other.

IL governs issues relating to the global environment, the
international waters, outer space, world trade..
IL includes the issue of maintenance of international peace
and security & the regulation of the use of force in the
international relationship.
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.Diplomacy versus other

disciplines
b) Diplomacy
Diplomacy refers to a peaceful settlement of conflict.
Diplomacy can be Conducted on bilateral /multilateral

basis.
Actors in Diplomacy are both states and non-states.
Diplomacy is used as instrument of IL.
As a practice and institution, diplomacy is older than IL.
Diplomacy has reinforcing means than IL.

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.Diplomacy versus other

disciplines
3.3. Diplomacy Vs Espionage
a)Diplomacy
Thought diplomacy is closely linked to
espionage, it is different in the following
points.
Diplomatic missions are legal and
Diplomatic activities are more formal.
Diplomacy is legally protected and immunized.
Diplomatic works are to be carried officially.
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.Diplomacy versus other

disciplines
b) Espionage
Thought espionage is highly related to

diplomacy, it is different in the following

points.

The mission of espionage is not legal.

The activities of espionage is not formal/official
Espionage can only be carried out secretly
The works of espionage is not legally protected

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4. Functions of Diplomacy
Diplomacy is highly essential for the
purpose of:* encouraging friendly and cooperative relations
among the Sovereign States of the world.
* providing a convenient channel for
communication among Sovereign States in
the world
* amicable settlement of different problems and
conflicts among international subjects
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functions of Diplomacy
Diplomacy makes relations and interactions

possible through influencing the behavior of

international actors through:

bargaining/negotiating,
taking non-coercive supportive actions
appealing to the public for support of a
position, i.e. public diplomacy.etc.

Diplomacy is important because it serves all the

above purposes which are short of war in the

IRs.

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functions of Diplomacy
According to Vienna Convention, the following

are some of the functions of diplomats.

image building
negotiation/bargaining,
promotion of friendly relations,
representing and protection nations
abroad,
communication, reporting
obtaining information on market,
trade.
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functions of Diplomacy
The major functions of a diplomat.
1. a diplomat represent the home country in the
host
country
2. a diplomat protect interests of home country in
the host country
3. a diplomat negotiate with the government of the
host country

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..functions of
Diplomacy
4. a diplomat monitors and reports on conditions
and developments in the commercial, economic,
cultural, and scientific life of the host country
5. a diplomat promotes friendly relations
between the host country and the home country
6. a diplomat develops commercial, economic,
cultural, and scientific relations between the host
country and the home country.
7. a diplomat issues passports, travel documents,
and visas
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.functions of
Diplomacy
Negotiation as a tool of diplomacy
1. Introduction
From among the other functions of a diplomat/diplomacy

Negotiation is the most important and basic one.

"Negotiation is the way to get yes, and it is a tool to serve
ones own interests within the common interests.
According to Fisher and Ury, wisely handled and
conducted negotiation:- can improve the relationship of parties.
- can satisfy the interests of the parties
- can result in a strong, fair and long lasting agreements.
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.functions of
Diplomacy
Negotiation can be defined as resolving of

disagreements to reach at agreement through

discussion and compromise matters.
Negotiation is the pursuits of agreement by
give and take through direct personal contact.
Diplomatic negotiations and discussions are
not mere academic debate. Diplomatic
negotiations and discussions are preliminaries
to different concrete actions.
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..functions of
Diplomacy
2. Major Principles of Negotiation
Both Fisher and William developed the following

four major principles of negotiation.

People:-Separate the people from the problem/issue

2.2. Interests:-Focus on interests rather than positions.
2.3. Options:- Generate variety of options
2.4. Criteria:-Insist that the agreement be based on
2.1.

objective criteria.

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..functions of
Diplomacy

Group

assignment/activity

Based on their formerly established

change army team students are
supposed to read, discuss on the
above four principles of negotiation
and submit paper for the next class.

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..functions of
Diplomacy
2.1. Separate the people from the problem/issue
Why we need to separate people from issue? This is

because:- we are human creature having a strong emotion with difference perceptions.
- Such emotions and perceptions brining difficulty in communications,
interactions
and relationships in the process of negotiation.
- Taking position just makes this worse because peoples egos become
identified
with their positions
Hence, before working on the substantive problem, the people problem should
be disentangled from it and dealt with separately.
To this end, the participants should come to see themselves attacking the
problem, not each other
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..functions of
Diplomacy
Parties/people to a diplomatic negotiation may:- tend to become personally involved with both the issues and
the positions,
- incline to take/give responses to those issues and positions as
personal attacks.

Separating the people from the issues:-

- allows the parties to address the issues without damaging their

communications and relationships.
- helps the parties to get a clearer view of the substantive problem,
different from their positions.
- helps to soft on the people, hard on the problem.

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..functions of
Diplomacy
Fisher and other scholars identified the following

three basic sorts of people problems.

1. differences in perception among the parties.
Since most conflicts are based on the difference in the
interpretations of a facts, it is crucial for parties to
understand each other's viewpoint.
The parties to a diplomatic negotiation should:- try to put themselves in the others place( under the shoes of the
other).
- not assume that their fears will become the actions of the other party.
- not blame each other for a certain problem.
- try to make proposals which would be appealing to the other side.
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..functions of
Diplomacy
The more that the parties are involved in the

process, the more likely they are to be involved

and to support the outcome.
2. Emotions are second source of people
problems.
When the parties to a negotiation feel that their

interests are challenged and threatened:-

they often react with fear or anger

- the negotiation process can be full of emotions and

frustrating
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..functions of
Diplomacy
The first step in dealing with emotions in the

process of negotiation is:- to acknowledge their existence.

- to try to understand their source.

The parties must acknowledge the fact that

certain emotions are present, even when they

don't see those feelings as reasonable.
Because dismissing another's feelings as
unreasonable is likely to provoke more intense
emotional response.
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..functions of
Diplomacy
The parties to a diplomatic

negotiation:- must allow the other side to express their

emotions.
- must not react emotionally to emotional outbursts.

Symbolic gestures such as apologies or

an expression of sympathy can help to

defuse strong emotions.
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..functions of
Diplomacy
3. Communication as source of people problems.
All the parties to a diplomatic negotiation:- may not be speaking to each other,
- but may be grandstanding for their respective constituencies.
- may not be listening to each other,
- but may instead be planning their own responses.

To combat all the these problems in the process of

negotiation:- the parties should employ active listening.

- the listeners should give the speaker their full attention,
- the listeners summarize the speaker's points to confirm their
understanding.
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..functions of
Diplomacy
The parties to the diplomatic negotiation should:- remember that understanding the other's case does not mean
agreeing with it.
- avoid blaming or attacking the other and should speak about
themselves.

Generally People problems are less likely to come up if the

parties in the negotiation:- are prevented from arising emotion.

- have a good relationships and interactions
- think of each other as partners rather than as adversaries.

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..functions of
Diplomacy

2. 2.

Focus on interests rather than

positions.

In the process of diplomatic negotiation

parties':- position is something they have decided upon

- interests are what caused them to decide.

When a problem is defined in terms of

parties':- positions, at least one party will lose the dispute.

- interests, it is often possible to find mutual solutions.
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..functions of
Diplomacy
The first step is to identify the parties' interests

regarding the issue at hand by asking:- why they hold the positions they do,
- why they don't hold some other possible position.

Each party to any negotiation process:- has a number of different interests underlying their
preference and positions.
- interests may differ somewhat among the
individual
members of each side.
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..functions of
Diplomacy
However, all people will share certain

basic interests or needs, such as the need

for security and economic well-being.
Once the parties have identified their basic
interests, they must discuss them together.
If a party wants the other side to take
his/her interests into account, that party
must explain his/her interests very clearly
and openly.
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..functions of
Diplomacy
The other side will be more motivated to

take those interests into account if the first

party shows that they are paying attention
to the other side's interests.
Discussions should look forward to the
desired solution, rather than focusing on
past events.
Parties should keep a clear focus on their
interests, but remain open to different
proposals, ideas, options and positions.
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..functions of
Diplomacy
2. 3. Generate variety of options
The following are four obstacles to generating

creative options for solving a problem.

1. The Parties may decide prematurely on an option and so fail
to consider other alternatives/options.
2 The Parties may have the intention of narrowing their
options to find a single answer only.
3. The parties may define the problem in win-lose terms,
assuming that the only options are for one side to win and the
other to lose.
4 A party may decide that it is up to the other side to come
up with a solution to the problem.
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..functions of
Diplomacy
The following are some of techniques to

overcome these obstacles and generating

creative options.
1. The parties should come together in an informal
atmosphere and talk each others to come up with creative
proposals for all possible solutions to the problem at hand.
2. Brainstorming sessions can be made more creative and
productive by encouraging the parties to shift between four
types of thinking:- stating the problem,
- considering general approaches
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- analyzing the problem

- taking specific actions
66

..functions of
Diplomacy
3. After a variety of proposals have been
made,
parties to a negotiation should:- turn to evaluating the proposed ideas.
- start with evaluating the most promising
proposals.
- suggest partial solutions to the problem.
- refine and improve proposals at this point.

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..functions of
Diplomacy
4. Insist that the agreement be based on objective
criteria.
When interests are directly opposed, the parties should use

objective criteria to resolve their differences.

Allowing such differences to spark a battle of wills in the
process of negotiation will/may:- destroy relationships,
- bring inefficiency and
- not produce wise agreements.

Decisions based on reasonable standards and

objective criteria make easier for the parties to agree
and preserve their good relationship.
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..functions of
Diplomacy
The first step must be developing objective criteria , because

objective criteria can be both legitimate and practical.

Hence, the parties must agree which objective criteria is
best for their common situations.
The following are the major objective criteria which could
be used in the negotiation process:- Scientific findings,
- professional standards
- legal precedents
One way to test for objectivity is to ask if both sides
would agree to be bound by those standards for resolving
their dispute.
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..functions of
Diplomacy
There are three points to keep in mind when

using objective criteria.

First point
Each issue should be approached as a shared

search for objective criteria.

Question should be asked for the reasoning behind
the other party's suggestions.
Using the other parties' reasoning to support your own
position can be a powerful way to negotiate.
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..functions of
Diplomacy
Second point
Each party must keep an open mind.
They must be reasonable and be willing to reconsider

their positions when there is reason to.

Third point
Negotiators in a process must never first give in to

pressure, threats, or bribes.

When the other party stubbornly refuses to be
reasonable, the first party may shift the discussion
from a search for substantive criteria to a search for
procedural criteria.
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..functions of
Diplomacy
3.Negotiation Stages
There are the four major stages in

the process of diplomatic negotiation;

namely
Preparation, Prenegotiation, Actual Negotiation,
Follow-up. A very brief discussion is
done in the following pages.
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..functions of
Diplomacy
1. Preparation
Preparation is a crucial stage in the
process of diplomatic negotiation.
Why? Because preparation in the process
of diplomatic negotiation:- gives the chance to establish an internal
consensus.
- is the key step to smooth
implementation.
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..functions of
Diplomacy
Major elements which should be considered

during preparation are: analyzing how the other side perceives ones own style,
analyzing the cross-cultural factors involved.
mobilizing all internal information relevant to the task and
options.
taking internal consultations to generate consensus
identifying BATNA the Best Alternative To
a Negotiated Agreement.

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..functions of
Diplomacy
This would provide the irreducible minimum

threshold that would not be crossed,

This is because if this is so , the negotiated solution
would be worse than the one that could be applied
without negotiations.
Equally important is the identification of the BATNA
of the other side, which may also be called the
resistance point, or the irreducible goal of the
other side.
It is only if there is a settlement range between
the resistance points of the two sides that there is a
realistic possibility of a solution satisfactory to both.
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..functions of
Diplomacy
If one party appears more eager for the

agreement, it may lead the other party to

extract some form of payment for entering
into negotiation.
In any negotiation process, it is during the
stage of preparation that: negotiation team should be formed,
the leader should be identified ,
internal dialogue must take place in the delegation,
political clearance for all major issues must be given .
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..functions of
Diplomacy
2)Pre-negotiation.
By some scholars of diplomacy, Prenegotiation is called the stage of

negotiation about negotiations.

The danger in the pre-negotiation stage
is that it may lead to a misunderstanding
of the ground rules, and at least in the
short-term, to a breakdown in talks.

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..functions of
Diplomacy
The other preliminaries in the pre-negotiation

stage include the identification of:- the agenda and venue,

- frequency of meetings, and
- other logistics.
- issues of confidentiality and
- disclosure to the media.

In the absence of agreement, one should be

prepared to use the media, and through that public

opinion as indirect participants in the process, used
to exercise influence on the negotiations.
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..functions of
Diplomacy
3) Negotiation.
Under the negotiation stage, any diplomatic

negotiation can be :- a straightforward or an overnight process, or

- drawn out over many sessions and even years.
In the stage of a diplomatic negotiation

stage,
the formal sessions of:- mainly bilateral negotiation.
- informal exchanges that may supplement it.
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..functions of
Diplomacy
Where issues are complex, it is useful to have a system

of:- agreed minutes, or

- some form of an interim document,
To avoid repetitive discussions when there are several
sessions spread over time, the main stages are the
following.
The initial stage- when the opening statements are
made
- calling for listening the hidden message follows.
- the dialogue at this point may appear ritualistic,
- but it sets the process in operation.
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..functions of
Diplomacy
The exploration stage -when tentative sounding is

carried out,

- settings hidden signals and non-verbal

communication is
very important.
The formula stage-

-where the broad approaches or themes are covered,

it is
essential to secure agreement on these before
moving on to
the next stage.
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..functions of
Diplomacy

The details stage- where the fine print is elaborated and agreed,
- sometimes this becomes the battleground for the major decisions,
or
- there may be no clear distinction between the two stages.

The packaging stage- where the fine print and all the
details
are tied together.
- The closer the agreement appears, the greater the
sensitivity and the need for caution.
- Where feasible, the implementation process should be built
into the agreement.
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..functions of
Diplomacy
4) Follow-up.
While many agreements are self-enforcing,

some need an enforcement mechanism.

Generally, an agreement which is
asymmetrical for instance, giving a
larger advantage to one side may
present problems of enforcement, if the
other side finds it appropriate to resile
from it.
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..functions of
Diplomacy
Follow-up as one stage of negotiation process is

very important:- for full assessment of the implications of the agreement and its
consequence on the other relationships,
- for communication of the results to the stakeholders and to the
public at large,
- to create the optimal conditions for implementation process.

- to elaborate the lessons and insights learnt from the

negotiation
experience
- for the incorporation of this learnt experiences into the
institutional memory.
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5. Dynamics of International
Bargaining
5.1. The Manipulation of Carrots and
Sticks

Parties involved in bargaining can

attempt to influence each others

behavior through the conscious
manipulation of:- carrots and sticks approach.
- threats and punishments techniques
- promise and rewards techniques
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Dynamics of International
Bargaining
Threats and punishment techniques

represent the stick approach where:- threats involve some hypothetical

actions.
- Punishments involve some real actions.

Promises and rewards represent the

carrot approach where:- promises involve hypothetical

actions.
- rewards involve real actions.
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Dynamics of International
Bargaining
As a general bargaining strategy, there is no

clear evidence that one approach is

inherently more effective than the other.
Those who view international politics as
being full of violent and anarchical tend to
place greater faith in the:- stick approach than in the carrot approach.
- threats and punishments techniques

This can be effective depending on the context in

which they are used.
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..Dynamics of International
Bargaining
As states bargain, they discover that it is more

difficult to compel than to deter certain behavior

on the part of another state.
One would expect states to exploit the
possibilities of promises and threats before
employing reward and punishments, which entail
some actual use and consumption of resources in
the bargaining process while promises and
threats involve only a hypothetical commitment
of resources.
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Dynamics of International
Bargaining
In the process of negotiation, it would seem logical

to:- provide rewards after some desired behavior has taken

place, either to fulfill an earlier promise or to reinforce a
continuation of that behavior,
- impose punishments which would seem appropriate
only
after some undesired behavior persists.

However, states do not always follow the logic of

delaying rewards and punishments until

promises and threats have been given a chance to
work.
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Dynamics of International
Bargaining
Game Theory as a tool in bargaining
A large box of game theory literature exists that provide

some useful insights into the nature of bargaining and the

way in which cooperation can occur amidst conflict.
Two basic types of games are common to discussions of
international bargaining namely; the zero sums game and
the variable- sum game

the zero sums game

The zero sum game is structured so that when one party wins, the

other party automatically loses and this might lead to

disagreements and serious conflicts.

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.Dynamics of International
Bargaining
the variable- sum game.
The variable- sum game represents the Winwin Outcome
Most practices in international relations resemble
variable sum games rather than zero sum
game.
The variable sum games often have prominent
solutions based on a general rule of maximize
gains and minimize losses, the so-called minimax rule.
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6. Classification of Diplomatic
personnel
According to Article 1/C of Vienna Convention on

Diplomatic Relations (1961), the members of

the staff are classified in to three categories;
namely
the diplomatic Staff, the
administration/technical staff and the service staff.

6.1. The diplomatic staff

The diplomatic staff are the members of the staff of

the mission having diplomatic rank.

It is the political staffs ranging from Ambassadors to
Attaches, and all are from the sending state.
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.Classification of Diplomatic
personnel
6.2. Administrative and technical staffs
Administrative and technical staffs/support

staff are the members of the staff of the mission

employed in the administrative and technical service
of the mission.
Usually those staff members are known as
supporting staff which include clerk, copy typists,
Archivist or document keeper.

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.Classification of Diplomatic
personnel

6.3. Service staffs

Service staffs are the members of the staff

of the mission in the domestic service

of the mission.
These are get keepers, car drivers,
cleaners, ..etc usually who are hired
from the host state.

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7. Legal framework of
Diplomacy
7.1. General issues
The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic

Relations of 1961 is an international treaty

that defines a framework for diplomatic
relations between independent countries.
It specifies the privileges of a
diplomatic mission that enable diplomats
to perform their function without fear of
coercion or harassment by the host country.
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.Legal framework of
Diplomacy
The Convention forms the legal basis for

diplomatic immunity and its articles are

considered a cornerstone of modern international
relations.
Throughout the history of sovereign nations,
diplomats have enjoyed a special status.
An envoy from another nation is traditionally treated
as a guest, their communications with their home
nation treated as confidential, and their freedom
from coercion and subjugation by the host nation.
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..Legal framework of
Diplomacy
7.2. key Articles from Conventions.
Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations is

an extensive document containing 53 articles.

Article-9
The host nation at any time and for any reason has the

right to declare a particular member of the diplomatic

staff persona non grata.
The sending nation must recall this person within a
reasonable period of time, otherwise this he/she may lose
his diplomatic immunity.
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..Legal framework of
Diplomacy
Article-22
The premises of a diplomatic mission such

as an embassy must not be entered by the

host country except by permission of the
head of the mission.
The host country must protect the mission
from intrusion or damage. Articles 27, 29,
30, 31, 32, 34, 36, 37, have similar
contents.
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..Legal framework of
Diplomacy
Article 27.
The host country must permit and protect free

communication between the diplomats of the mission and

their home country.
A diplomatic bag must never be opened by any of the
law enforcement of host nation even on suspicion of abuse.

Article 29.
Diplomats must not be liable to any form of arrest or

detention.
They are immune from civil or criminal prosecution, though
the sending country may waive this right under Article 32.
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..Legal framework of
Diplomacy
Article 31.1c
Actions not covered by diplomatic immunity:

professional activity outside diplomat's official

functions.

Article 37.
The family members of a diplomat that are

living in the host country enjoy most of the

same protections as the diplomats
themselves.
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8. Diplomatic Rules and

Procedures
8.1. Appointment and Reception of Diplomat
Each state may adopt its own procedures of

appointing diplomats. Yet certain generally

recognized procedures are observed.
As a rule, the nomination of a diplomat is made
public only after the approval or agreement is
secured from the country to which he/ she is being
sent.
Sometimes approval may be refused persona non
grata (Article 4(1,2.) or persons declared Non
Grata
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Diplomatic Rules and

Procedures
Persona non grata
In diplomacy, the term persona non grata literally

means "an unwelcome person", referring to a

foreign person whose entering or remaining in a
particular country is prohibited by that country's
government.
It is the most serious form of censure/disapproval
which one country can apply to foreign diplomats,
who are otherwise protected by diplomatic immunity
from arrest and other normal kinds of prosecution .
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102

.Diplomatic Rules and

Procedures
While diplomatic immunity protects mission

staff from prosecution for violating civil

and criminal laws, depending on rank, under
Articles 41 and 42 of the Vienna Convention,
they are bound to respect national laws and
regulations.
States can expel diplomats suspected of
espionage (described as "activities
incompatible with diplomatic status) or any
overt criminal act such as drug traffickin.
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..Diplomatic Rules and

Procedures
Before a diplomat leaves on to up his

assignment, he/she must be furnished with

certain important papers, diplomatic
passport and letter of credence/credentials.
The letter of credence which in a diplomats
formal commission is signed by the head
of the state and addressed to the head
of the state to which he/she in accredited.
Article 10(1.a,b,c,d,)2
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..Diplomatic Rules and

Procedures
8.2. Ceremony of presentation (read it)
A diplomatic agent or the heads of the mission enjoy

public audience or direct audience with the

heads of state to which they are accreted, and they
are called his Excellency or her Excellency as
of right. At that time a brief speech is made first by
the envoy and then by the head who accepts the
letter of credence. Then he confers with the foreign
minister and other important leaders of the
government and visits his colleagues of the diplomat
corps, Article 13(1,2).
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..Diplomatic Rules and

Procedures
8.3. Termination of diplomatic Mission.
There are various ways of terminating a

diplomatic mission such as personal

resignation, recall or dismissal by the sending
nation.
A government may itself recall or it may be
asked to do so based on Article 9 (1,2) &
Article 43 (a,b) & Article 45 (a,b,c).

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9. Diplomatic Privileges and

Immunities
The Privileges and Immunities of the

diplomatic mission could be divided in to

two major categories.
1. Privilege and immunity of the diplomatic mission
Under the Vienna Convention, the premises of
diplomatic mission is inviolable.
Therefore, agents of the host state such as
the military, security, etc may not inter the
premise except with permission of heads of
diplomatic mission.
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..Diplomatic Privileges and

Immunities
The host sate is duty bound to protect the mission

premises against any intrusion, damage or

disturbance
But only allowed with the permission to enter when
fire or any natural calamities take place.
The premises of the mission, their property and
other belonging of the mission such as means of
transport shall be immune from search and claim
of the host national for instance to claim the land
of the embassy, etc. diplomatic bag sealed worth
diplomatic pouch-not to be searched.
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..Diplomatic Privileges and

Immunities
9.2. Personal privilege and immunities
The person and the dignity of the diplomatic

agent shall be inviolable.

The diplomatic agent should be protected by the
host state from any attack or violence because
he/she represent sovereign state, Article 29.
The private residence of diplomat shall enjoy
the same privilege and immunity as mission
promises, Article 30
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10. Types of
diplomacy

There are a variety of diplomatic

classifications made by international
organizations and governments among
which the following are major ones.
10.1. Tracks of diplomacy
Track - I diplomacy: this refers to the official
discussions typically involving high-level political
and military leaders and focusing on issues like
cease-fires, peace talks, and treaties and other
agreements.
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.Types of
diplomacy
Track II -diplomacy:- refers to an

unofficial
dialogue and problem-solving activities
aimed at building relationships and
encouraging new thinking that can inform the
official process. Track 2 activities typically
involve influential academic communities ,
religious leaders, and NGO leaders and
other civil society actors who can interact
more freely than high-ranking officials.

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.Types of
diplomacy
Track - III diplomacy: refers to People-to-people
diplomacy undertaken by individuals and private
groups to encourage interaction and
understanding between hostile communities and
involving awareness rising and empowerment
within these communities. Normally focused at
the grassroots level, this type of diplomacy often
involves organizing meetings and conferences,
generating media exposure, and political and
legal advocacy for marginalized people and
communities.
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.Types of
diplomacy
Multi-track-diplomacy: A term for operating
on several tracks simultaneously, including
official and unofficial conflict resolution efforts,
citizen and scientific exchanges, international
business negotiations, international cultural
and athletic activities, and other cooperative
efforts. These efforts could be led by
governments, professional organizations,
businesses, churches, media, private citizens,
training and educational institutes, activists,
and funders.
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.Types of
diplomacy
10. 2. Public/ open Vs Secret Diplomacy
Since the time of Wilson, many people have argued

that open covenants openly arrived at would

remove much of suspicion in the international
relations.
Many argue that secrecy in the negotiating process is
necessary bad, in terms of not only frustrating the
publics rights to know but also adding to sense
of insecurity and distrust experienced by all nation
in the international system.

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.Types of
diplomacy

However, many students of diplomacy, scholars

and politicians argue just the opposite. For
them, in the case of highly sensitive and delicate
negotiations, even if the final outcome ought
ultimately to be publicized, there might be
legitimate reason for keeping diplomatic process
secret.
Group activity(10 min.)
In your change/education army, discuss on the

above two positions and take your own position as a

group or individually.
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115

.Types of
diplomacy
10.3. Bilateral versus Multilateral Diplomacy
Multilateral diplomacy has become increasingly

prevalent in the 20th and 21st centuries, owing

to a number of factors such as:a) the existence of global problems such as arms
control, environment, development,.. etc.
b) the proliferating of inter-governmental organization
at the global and regional level-UN,EU, .etc.

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.Types of
diplomacy
c)the involvement of many less developed
countries that have come to ally on the UN
and other multilateral forums for bulk of their
diplomatic contracts.
Multilateral diplomacy occurs not only through
institutions like UN but also through ad hoc
conferences convened among states sharing
mutual concerns.

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.Types of
diplomacy
10. 4. Tacit/Informal Vs Formal
Diplomacy
Formal:-direct communication through face-to-

face meetings, cables, or third part

intermediaries- is one mode of diplomacy.
Tacit/Informal:- in addition to formal negotiation,
governments engage in tacit diplomacy. Informal
indirect communication through words (eg. Press
conference statements) and actions (e.g. placing
troops on alert) designed to signal intentions or
the importance one attaches to some issue.
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.Types of
diplomacy
In practice, states tend to combine the two
(formal and informal) approaches, using tacit
diplomacy for posturing "purpose either prior
or during a formal negotiating session in order to
reinforce the message they wish to convey apart
from being utilized in conjunction with formal
negotiations.
Tacit diplomacy is often employed simply to
influence another government future behavior,
particularly when seeking to dissuade the other
side from taking some action .
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.Types of
diplomacy
5. Monetary diplomacy/Dollar diplomacy
is the use of foreign aid or other types
of monetary policy as a means to
achieve a diplomatic agenda.
6. Gunboat diplomacy is the use of
conspicuous displays of military
strength as a means of intimidation in
order to influence others.
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.Types of
diplomacy
7. Appeasement diplomacy :-refers to political
pacification of potential conflict by making concessions
to an aggressor in order to avoid confrontation.

8. Soft power diplomacy :- sometimes called hearts

and minds diplomacy, is the cultivation of relationships,
respect, or even admiration from others in order to gain
influence, as opposed to more coercive approaches.

9. Nuclear diplomacy:- is the area of diplomacy related

to preventing nuclear proliferation and nuclear war. One of
the most well-known and most controversial nuclear
diplomacy is mutually assured destruction

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11. New trends and

Approaches
11 1. Democratic Diplomacy- refers to the
involvements of increasing participation of
the people in the offices of the government.

11 2.

Parliamentary Diplomacy refers

to the second aspects of open diplomacy and
consists of conferences and meetings
between representatives to reach at
establishment of:- temporary international conference.
- permanent international organization.

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New trends and

Approaches
After First World War, the statesmen of the world began

to depart from the established pattern of diplomacy.

They created the League of Nations and later on the UN
through which a new type of diplomatic intercourse that
is diplomacy by parliamentary procedure.
International problems requiring solutions are put on the
agenda of the deliberative bodies of these organizations.
The delegates of different government discuss the merits
of the problem in public debate.
A vote taken in accordance with the constitution of the
organization disposes of the matter.
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New trends and

Approaches
11.3. Summit Diplomacy - high level
Diplomacy at the highest level is an ancient practice but

the term is relatively new. Churchill coined the phrase

in 1953as a meeting proposed between heads of state.
Leaders of a countries and foreign ministers can regularly
hold bilateral or multilateral submit conference on different
matters.
Now a days, Heads of state can use latest technology such
as teleconferencing and hot lines discussions to ease
unnecessary confrontations.
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New trends and

Approaches
11 4. Commercial Diplomacy
Economic issues have an effect on modern diplomacy.

Because in an interdependent world, economic

instruments are used in diplomatic endeavors for
promotions of national interest.
Economic blockades, threats to discontinue economic aid
by major powers, and formation of economic alliances are
some of economic diplomacy.
Economic means have used both to strengthen friendly
government by pumping money into their national
economics to relieve domestic political pressure and to
weaken unfriendly ones by damaging their economic.
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12. Public Diplomacy

12.1.The Concept of Public diplomacy
In its modern sense, the concept of

public diplomacy: is a new and expanding one that has no single

agreed-upon and exclusive definition.

was, for the first time in its form, coined in 1965 by
Gullion, an American scholar and diplomat.
deals with the influence of public attitudes on the
formation and execution of foreign policies.
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12. Public
Diplomacy.
According to Alan K. Henrikson, Public
diplomacy is defined, simply, as the conduct of
international relations by governments through
public communications and dealings with a
wide range of non-governmental entities such
as political parties, corporations, trade
associations, labor unions, educational
institutions, religious organizations, ethnic
groups, influential individuals ..for the
purpose of influencing the politics and actions
of other governments.
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12. Public
Diplomacy.
Public diplomacy encompasses dimensions
of international relations such as:cultivation of public opinions in other countries by
governments;
interaction of private groups in one country with those of
another;
reporting of foreign affairs and its impact on policy;
communication between those whose job is communication,
as between diplomats and foreign correspondents;
processes of inter-cultural communications and interactions .

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12. Public
Diplomacy.
The general objectives of a countrys Public
Diplomacy is to:
1. influence foreign citizens perception towards ones
own
country;
2) correct misperceptions about the nations policies and
values;
3) promote greater and best mutual understanding
between and among countries
4) impact official relations with the foreign government in
a way that serves the countrys national interests.
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Public
Diplomacy
Public diplomacy is the use of certain

methods to
create a favorable image of the state or its people
through goodwill tours, cultural and student exchanges
and media presentations .etc
Thus, public diplomacy requires openness to the peoples
of other countries such as students, civil society,
intellectuals, journalists, business communities.. etc
Though secrecy and covert maneuvering are still
extensively used, international relations of the
contemporary world can no longer be conducted without
consideration of being open to the public opinion.

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Public
Diplomacy

Public diplomacy involves the way in which both

government and private individuals and or the

community influence directly and indirectly those
public attitudes and opinions that bear directly on
another governments foreign policy decisions.
Public diplomacy is people to people relations and
interactions through its chief instruments such as
publications, motion pictures, cultural exchanges,
radio , television..
The use of public diplomacy, therefore, is an
increasingly popular diplomatic technique in a
communication that links the world.
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Public
Diplomacy
Why the current government

needs to
shift from G2G and/or G2P to P2P? This is
because of the following factors.

1.The
development
in
user-friendly
communication
technologies that have increased public participation in
talking about foreign affairs and the subsequent
involvement of public opinion in foreign policy making and
international interactions. Nothing can be kept secret.
2. Another development is the increase in people-to-people
exchanges for different purposes across national
borders.
Nothing can be blocked or protected.
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Public
Diplomacy
3. Continues and Extensive democratization of
diplomacy has occurred as:- citizens and NGO involvement increases;
- NGO delegates conduct meetings parallel to
states delegates and lobby the latter.
4. The nature and doctrine of the leadership and the
current political-economy system, agenda and
ideology which to led the paradigm shift in the
foreign policy and international relationships.

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The End
Many thanks for your
patience
And

I wish you all

enjoyable break
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