Chapter 8

Exploring Polynomial Functions

Jennifer Huss

8-1 Polynomial Functions

The degree of a polynomial is determined by the greatest exponent

when there is only one variable (x) in the polynomial
Polynomial functions where the degree is n and a is the coefficient
look like this:
f(x) = a0xn + a1xn-1 + +an-1x + an
Example: f(x) = 4x4 3x3 + 12x2 7x + 2 (degree 4)

If we know that x = 5 then f(5) replaces each x in the polynomial with a 5

The degree of the function tells the maximum number of real zeros the
function has, or the number of times the graph of the function crosses
the x-axis (ex: degree 4 function means there are at most 4 real zeros)
A leading coefficient is the coefficient on the term of highest degree, in
the example above it would be 4 because 4x4 is the term of highest
degree
See the book for more about the functions of different degrees

8-1 Polynomial Functions (cont.)

Even functions (degrees 0, 2, 4, 6, etc.) take this form:
Both sides of this graph go up (+) or
both go down (-)

Odd functions (degrees 1, 3, 5, 7, etc.) take this form:

One side of this graph rises

(+) and the other side falls (-)

8-1 Examples
1.

2.

Determine if this expression is a polynomial in one variable. If it is, give

the degree of the function.
a)
b)
c)

X2 + 2xy + y2
2a2 2a + 4
12 2/n + n2

d)

34 + 18c4 + 15c6

This is not a function because it has x and y variables.

This is a polynomial and its degree is 2.
This is not a polynomial because 2/n has a negative
degree.
This is a polynomial of degree 6.

Find p(m + 2) if p(x) = 3x 8x2 + x3.

p(m + 2) = 3(m + 2) 8(m + 2)2 + (m + 2)3
= 3m + 6 8(m2 + 4m + 4) + (m + 2)(m2 + 4m + 4)
= 3m + 6 8m2 32m 32 + m3 + 6m2 + 12m + 8
= m3 2m2 17m 18

8-1 Examples (cont.)

3.

Decide if the graph is even or odd and tell how many real zeros it
has.
1.
2.

f(x) = x3 5x + 2
f(x) = x4 3x3 + 2

1.

2.

This is an odd function

with 3 real zeros.

This is an even function

with 2 real zeros.

8-1 Problems
Find f(3) for f(x) = x5 + 5x4 15x2 8
Find f(x + 2) for f(x) = x2 2x + 5
Graph f(x) = x4 5x2 + 4. Decide if its an even or odd
function and tell how many real zeros it has.

1) 505

2) x2 + 2x + 5

3) even function, 4 real zeros

1.
2.
3.

8-2 The Remainder and Factor

Theorems

There are two parts of the remainder theorem:

1.

If the polynomial f(x) is divided by (x a), the remainder will be a

number that is equal to f(a)
1.

2.

I.e.. If f(x) is divided by x 4, f(4) will give the value of the remainder

Dividend = (quotient x divisor) + remainder

1.
2.

also can see this as f(x) = [q(x) x (x a)] + f(a)

The quotient is always a polynomial with one degree less than f(x)

Synthetic division is helpful in solving these problems (this can also

be called synthetic substitution)

Factor theorem:
(x a) is a factor of f(x) if and only if the remainder (or f(a)) is
equal to zero
This is a good way to find the first factor of a polynomial

The quotient may also be called a depressed polynomial because it has

one less degree than the original polynomial

8-2 Examples
1.

Use synthetic division and direct substitution to find f(4) when

f(x) = x4 6x3 + 8x2 + 5x + 13.

4 1 -6 8 5 13
4 -8 0 20
1 -2 0 5 33
2.

OR

f(4) = 44 6(4)3 + 8(4)2 + 5(4) + 13

=256 384 + 128 + 20 + 13
f(4) = 33

Give the factors of x3 11x2 + 36x 36 if one factor is x 6.

6 1 -11 36 -36
6 -30 36
1 -5 6
0

So, after we divide the polynomial by x 6

we are left with x2 5x + 6 which we can
solve by factoring into (x 3)(x + 2).
This means the factors are (x 6), (x 3),
and (x + 2).
This can also be written in the f(x) = quotient x divisor + remainder.
This would look like f(x) = (x2 5x + 6)(x 6) + 0.

8-2 Problems

3) (x + 5), (x 2), and (x + 3)

3.

2) f(-5) = 63

2.

Use synthetic division to do (4x3 9x2 10x 2) divided by (x 3).

Then write the answer in the form f(x) = [quotient x divisor] + remainder.
Given f(x) = 4x2 + 6x 7, find f(-5) by synthetic division or direct
substitution.
Five the factors of x3 + 6x2 x 30 if one factors is (x + 5).

1) (4x2 + 3x 1)(x 3) 5

1.

8-3 Graphing Polynomial Functions and

Approximating Zeros
Look back at 8-1 to help with understanding finding zeros
and the definition of even and odd functions
Location Principle:
If y = f(x) is a polynomial function and you have a and b such that
f(a) < 0 and f(b) > 0 then there will be some number in between a
and b that is a zero of the function
a
zero
b

A relative maximum is the highest point between two

zeros and a relative minimum is the lowest point between
two zeros

8-3 Example
Graph the function f(x) = -2x3 5x2 + 3x + 2 and approximate
the real zeros.

There are zeros at

approximately -2.9,
-0.4, and -0.8.

8-3 Problem
Graph f(x) = x3 + x2 4x 4 and approximate the real
zeros. Show the relative minimum and maximum on
the graph.

1) The real zeros are approximately -2, -1, and 2.

1.

8-4 Roots and Zeros

The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra says that every polynomial

equation has at least one root in the set of complex numbers
Another way to state it: a polynomial with degree n has exactly n
roots in the set of complex numbers
Remember: roots can be imaginary (complex numbers)
The Complex Conjugates Theorem says that if a + bi is a zero of a
polynomial function then a bi is also a zero of the function
Descartes Rule of Signs says that if f(x) is a polynomial with its
terms arranged in order of decreasing power (ex: x3, x2, x) then:
The number of positive real zeros is given by the number of sign changes of
the coefficients of f(x), or less than the number of sign changes by an even
number
The number of negative real zeros is given by the number of sign changes of
the coefficients of f(-x), or less than the number of sign changes by an even
number
Ex: 5 sign changes for f(x) means 5, 3, or 1 positive real zeros

8-4 Examples
1.

Give the possible number of positive real zeros, negative real zeros, and
imaginary zeros of f(x) = x3 7x2 + 16x 10. Then find all the zeros if
one zero is 3 i.

f(x) = x3 7x2 + 16x 10

3 sign changes, so 3 or 1 positive
real zeros

Since 3 i is one zero, 3 + i will also be a zero.

f(x) = [x (3 i)][x (3 + i)](?)
f(x) = [ x2 (3 i)x (3 + i)x + (3 i)(3 + i)](?)

f(-x) = -x3 7x2 16x 10

0 sign changes, so no negative real
zeros
Since the degree is 3 on this
polynomial we should have 3 zeros.
If we have 3 positive real zeros there
will be no imaginary zeros. If we
have 1 positive real zero there will be
2 imaginary zeros.
So, 3 positive real zeros or 1
positive real zero and 2 imaginary
zeros.

f(x) = (x2 3x + xi 3x xi + 9 i2) (?)

f(x) = (x2 6x + 10) (?)
So now we need to find the (?), which is the third factor, by long
division.
x 1
So, (x 1) is the
x2 6x + 10 ) x3 7x2 + 16x 10
third factor, which
-(x3 6x2 + 10x)

-x2 + 6x 10
-(-x2 + 6x 10)
0

means the third

zero is 1.
The zeros are
3 + i, 3 i, and 1.

8-4 Examples (cont.)

2.

Given that 1 and 1 + i are two zeros of a polynomial, write the polynomial
of the least degree having these zeros.

If 1 + i is a zero, 1 i is another zero.

f(x) = [x (1 + i)] [x (1 i)] (x 1)
f(x) = [ x2 (1 + i)x (1 i)x + (1 + i)(1 i)] (x 1)
f(x) = [x2 x xi x + xi + 1 i2] (x 1)
f(x) = (x2 2x + 2) (x 1)
f(x) = x3 2 x2 + 2x x2 + 2x 2
f(x) = x3 3x2 + 4x 2
The polynomial is x3 3x2 + 4x 2.

8-4 Problems

2) The zeros are 1 3i, 1 + 3i, and -2.

2.

State the number of positive real zeros, negative real zeros, and
imaginary zeros in f(x) = 16x3 + 6x2 7x + 3.
Given f(x) = x3 + 6x + 20 and one of its zeros as 1 3i, find all of
the zeros of this function.

1) 2 or 0 positive real zeros, 1 negative real zero, 2 or 0 imaginary zeros.

1.

8-5 Rational Zero Theorem

The rational zero theorem helps us find zeros when we have large numbers
that are hard to factor
Rational Zero Theorem says that if you have a polynomial
f(x) = a0xn + + an-1x + an, then you can find zeros by doing p divided by q if
p is a factor of an and q is a factor of ao

A similar theorem, the Integral Zero Theorem, says that if a0 = 1 and an= 0,
then q = 1 which makes p/q= p. This means that all the zeros of this
function will simply be the factors of an.

To find which zeros actually work, you need to do the Descartes Rule of
Signs and graph the function

8-5 Example
List the possible rational zeros for f(x) = 3x4 2x3 5. Then graph the function
to see which are the actual rational zeros.
a0 = 3 which means q = 1, 3
an = -5 which means p = 1, 5
Possible rational zeros are: 1 , 5 , 1, 5 or 1, 5, 1/3, 5/3
1 1 3 3

The real zeros are -1

and 5/3.

8-5 Problems
List the possible rational zeros of f(x) = x4 8x3 + 7x 14.
Find the rational zeros of f(x) = x3 x2 8x + 12.

1) 1, 2, 7, 4

2) The zeros are 2 and -3.

1.
2.

8-6 Using Quadratic Techniques to

Solve Polynomial Equations

Sometimes we want to solve or factor a polynomial that is not

degree 2 (x2)
We try to force the polynomial into the quadratic form so then we
can factor and solve it
The quadratic form is: a[f(x)]2 + b[f(x)] + c = 0
This is a variation of ax2 + bx + c = 0 where our x term could
change depending on the problem

8-6 Examples
Solve the following equations.
1)

x4 7x2 + 12 = 0
(x2)2 7(x2) + 12 = 0
(x2 4)(x2 3)= 0
x2 4 = 0
x2 3 = 0
x2 = 4
x2 = 3
x= 4
x= 3
x= 2
The solutions or zeros are
2, -2, 3, and - 3.

2) t3 216 = 0
First, you must look at the graph to find the
first zero at x = 6. Then perform long division.
t2 + 6t + 36
t 6 t3 - 216
This gives (t 6)(t2 + 6t + 36) = 0.
t2 + 6t + 36 cant be factored so we use the
quadratic formula.
t=-6

(6)2 4(1)(36) = -3 3i 3
2(1)
The zeros are 6, -3 + 3i 3, and -3 3i 3.

8-6 Examples (cont.)

3.

y8 y+7=0
( y)2 8( y) + 7 = 0
( y 7)( y 1) = 0

y7=0
y=7
y = 49

y1=0
y=1
y=1

The solutions or zeros are 1 and 49.

8-6 Problems
Solve each equation.
1.
s 13 s + 36 = 0
2.
x4 6x2 = -8
3.
n3 + 12n2 + 32n = 0

1) 16 and 81

2) 2, -2, 2,and - 2

3) 0, -4, and -8

8-7 Composition of Functions

The composition of functions is when you combine two functions to create

one multi-step function
The composition function f g needs to have the range of g as part of the
domain of f (the output of g is part of the input for f)
The composition f g is written as f[g(x)]
In these problems you solve g(x) to get some value a, and then you solve
f(a) to get the final answer
Two functions may not have a composition if we find g(x) to be a, but f(a) is
not possible
Iteration is a special composition where the function combines with itself, for
example, f[f(x)]

8-7 Examples
fg

1) If f = {(1, 4) (10, 5) (6, -3)} and g = {(5, 1) (4, 6)}

then find fg.

Domain (xs) of g

Range (ys) of g

f[g(5)] = f(1) = 4
f[g(4)] = f(6) = -3

10

-3

Domain (xs) of f
Range (ys) of f

2) If f(x) = x + 7 and g(x) = x2 4, find [fg](2) and [gf](2).

[fg](2) = f[g(2)]

[gf](2) = g[f(2)]

= f(22 4)

= g(2 + 7)

= f(4-4)

= g(9)

= f(0)

= (9)2 4

=0+7

= 81 4

=7

= 77

8-7 Problems
If f(x) = 2x + 10 and g(x) = x2 1, find [fg](2) and [gf](2).
If f(x) = 8 2x and g(x) = 3x, find f[g(x)].

1) [fg] is 16 and [gf] is 195

2) f[g(x)] = 8 6x

1.
2.

8-8 Inverse Functions and Relations

Two functions, f and g, are inverse functions (opposites) if their composition

gives the identity function (x)
[fg](x) = x and [gf](x) = x

To check for inverses, take both compositions and see if both equal x
Also, if you graph the functions the inverse functions should be mirror
images or reflections of one another across the line y = x
f-1 mean f inverse and f = g-1 means f is the inverse of g
If f and f-1 are inverse functions, f(a) = b and f-1(b) = a
This means that the ordered pair (a, b) will change to (b, a) for the inverse function

To write an inverse function, switch the x and the y of the equation

y = ax + b changes to x = ay + b

Inverse relations means that a relation (set of ordered pairs) can be

changed into an inverse by switching (a, b) to (b, a)

8-8 Examples
1.

Determine whether f(x) = 6 2x and g(x) = (6 x) are inverse functions. Check by

graphing.
In order to determine this we will find [fg](x) and [gf](x).
g(x)

[fg](x) = f[g(x)]
= f [1/2(6 x)]
= 6 2[1/2(6 x)]
=66+x
=x

[gf](x) = g[f(x)]
= g(6 2x)
= [6 (6 2x)]
= (6 6 + 2x)
= (2x)
=x

f(x)

Yes, f(x) and g(x)

are mirror images.

Yes, they are inverse functions since both compositions equal x

and the graphs are mirror images.

8-8 Examples (cont.)

2.

Find the inverse of f(x) = x + 3. Then graph both functions to verify they are
inverses.

To find the inverse, switch y and x.

f(x) = x + 3
y=x+3
x=y+3
y=x3
f-1 = x 3

The graphs are mirror images across y = x.

Check:
[f f-1](x) = f(x 3)
= (x 3) + 3
=x

[f-1f](x) = f-1(x + 3)
= (x + 3) 3
=x

Yes, f-1 = x 3 is the inverse function.

8-8 Problems

2) No

2.

Find the inverse of f(x) = 2x + 5 and graph the function and the
inverse function.
Determine if f(x) = 3x 9 and g(x) = -3x + 9 are inverse functions.

1) f-1 = (1/2)x (5/2)

1.

8-8B Square Root Functions and

Relations

Square root functions can never be negative if we want to find answers that
are real numbers
The square root graph looks like the following:

y= x

For examples and practice problems, see the textbook