Wastewater

Treatment

INTRODUCTION
We will start with an overview of treatment
processes
1) Why do we treat water and wastewater?
The main objectives of the conventional
wastewater treatment processes are the
reduction in biochemical oxygen demand,
suspended solids and pathogenic organisms.

 Also necessary to remove nutrients such as

N and P, toxic components, non-biologically
degradable compounds and dissolved solids.

Removal of these materials are necessary for

the simple reason that discharge to the
environment will result in damage of some
sort.

2) What are the materials in water and

wastewater that we must remove?
There are a wide range of these pollutants
(contaminants) ranging from municipal
sewage to highly specific industrial
wastes. The usual approach in discussing
treatment schemes is to categorize
pollutants into general classes so that a
general class of treatment methods can be
applied.

 Note that many pollutants fall into several

categories.
For example, some biodegradable organic
matter (one category) is in the form of
suspended solids (another category).
So removal of SS sometimes results in the
removal of organic matter.

3) To what level do we need to remove

contaminants?
The degree to which drinking water must be
treated depends on the raw water quality and
the desired quality of the finished water.
Similarly the degree of treatment of a
wastewater depends on the quality of the
raw waste and the required effluent quality.

 BOD5 = 30 mg/L monthly average

Suspended Solids = 30 mg/L monthly average
pH (if there is industrial input) = 6 9

continuous
For drinking water treatment the requirements
are, of course, much more stringent with
many more categories and lower contaminant
limits.

 Turbidity (a measure of suspended solids):

less than 0.5 NTU in at least 95% of
samples taken each month.
Lead: 0.005 mg/L
Copper: 1.3 mg/L
Total Coliform: no coliform detection in more
than 5% of samples collected each month.

4) How are these contaminants

removed from water and
wastewater?
Contaminant removal is accomplished by a
series of unit processes or unit operations.
Unit operation is a physical ,chemical or
biological treatment process.
The system of integrated unit processes or
unit processes used to treat a water or
wastewater is called a treatment train.

General overview of plant components

Raw Wastewater Influent

PRELIMINARY

Preliminary Residuals

Clarifier

PRIMARY

(i.e., grit, rags, etc.)

Primary Sludge

Chemical
Treatment

B
Biological
Treatment
System

Usually to Landfill

Wastewater
Treatment
Residuals

SECONDARY

Clarifier
Clarifier

DISINFECTION
TERTIARY

C Secondary Sludge
Biosolids
Processing
and Disposal

Clean Wastewater Effluent

Discharge to Receiving Waters

Advance
Treatment
System

Conventional Wastewater Treatment

Process

PRELIMINARY

PRIMARY

SECONDARY

DISINFECTION

TERTIARY

Bar Screening
Grit Removal
Comminutors
Flow equalization
Flocculation
Chemical
Sedimentati
precipitation
on
Adsorption
Clarifiers
Aerobic Processes
Anoxic Processes
Anaerobic
Processes
Combined AerobicAnoxic
Anaerobic
Sludge
Processes
Pond Processes
Treatment and
Chlorine compounds
Bromine Chloride
Disposal
Ozone
UV Radiation
Reverse osmosis
Ion Exchange
Membrane filtration
Solvent extraction
Advanced oxidation
process

grinding, degritting,
blending, thickening,
stabilization,
conditioning, disinfection,
dewatering, heat drying,
thermal reduction,
ultimate disposal

Preliminary treatment

Mechanical Processes
1 Screening
The first unit operation encountered in wastewater-treatment
plants is screening. A screen is a device with openings, generally of
uniform size that is used to retain the coarse solids found in
wastewater.
According to the method of cleaning, screens are designated as
hand cleaned or mechanically cleaned.
According to the size of openings, screens are designated as
coarse or fine. Coarse screens have openings of inch or more, and
fine screens have openings of less than inch.

Mechanical Screen

Preliminary Treatment

SCREENING

Figure Definition sketch for types of screens used in

wastewater treatment

Grit chamber

Aerated grit chamber :

diffused air keeps organ
solids in suspension as
settles

Vortex - Type Grit Chamb

Vortex is created
-Grit move to the outside
of the unit and gets colle

Comminutor

In this device all of th

wastewater flow pass
through the grinder
assembly

The grinder consists

screen or slotted bask
a rotating or oscillatin
cutter and a stationar
cutter

Solids pass through t

screen and are chopp
or shredded between
two cutters

3 Flow Equalization
Flow equalization is used to overcome the operational problems
caused by flow variations, to improve the performance of the
downstream processes, and is also used as an emergency tank to
equalize wastewater effluent in case of any process failure in the
treatment process.
The design must provide for sufficient mixing to prevent solids
deposition and concentration variations and also to provide aeration
to prevent odor problems.
The best location for equalization facilities to be at existing and
proposed treatment plant sites. In some cases, equalization after
primary treatment and before biological treatment may be
appropriate.

Location

(a) Locate in-line

(b) off-line

Primary treatment

Primary treatment
The

objective of primary treatment is the removal

of settle-able organic and inorganic solids by
sedimentation, and the removal of materials that
will float (scum) by skimming
Approximately 25 to 50% of the incoming
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), 50 to 70% of
the total suspended solids (SS), and 65% of the
oil and grease are removed during primary
treatment
Some organic nitrogen, organic phosphorus, and
heavy metals associated with solids are also
removed during primary sedimentation
In many industrialized countries, primary
treatment is the minimum level of pre-application
treatment required for wastewater irrigation

Contd
Primary

sedimentation tanks or clarifiers may be

round or rectangular basins, typically 3 to 5 m
deep, with hydraulic retention time between 2
and 3 hours

Settled

solids (primary sludge) are normally

removed from the bottom of tanks by sludge
rakes that scrape the sludge to a central well from
which it is pumped to sludge processing units

Scum

is swept across the tank surface by water

jets or mechanical means from which it is also
pumped to sludge processing units

Primary Treatment

Flocculation

Physical Treatment

1 Sedimentation

Sedimentation is the separation from water, by gravitational

settling, of suspended particles that are heavier than water.
Sedimentation is used for separation of grit and particulate
matter in the primary settling basin, separation of biological-floc in
the activated-sludge settling basin, and separation of chemical-floc
when the chemical coagulation process is used. It is also used for
solids concentration in sludge thickeners.
Sedimentation basins are constructed in a variety of shapes and
sizes, circular tanks or rectangular tanks.
The basin is comprised of four zones according to function:
1-The inlet zone.
3-The sludge zone.

2-The settling zone.

4-The outlet zone.

 The inlet zone is a region where the incoming suspension is

distributed uniformly over the cross-section of the tank.
In the settling zone, the particles settle at the same rate as
they would in a quiescent.
In the outlet zone, the clarified liquid is collected uniformly over
the cross-section of the basin.
The solids collect in a sludge zone at the bottom of the tank.

Rectangular basin

Circular basin

Rectangular basin

Circular basin

Chemical Treatment

Chemical unit processesprecipitation

Widely used, technology for the removal of metals and
other inorganics, suspended solids, fats, oils, greases,
and some other organic substances from wastewater.
Precipitation is a method of causing contaminants that
are either dissolved or suspended in solution to settle
out of solution as a solid precipitate, which can then be
filtered, centrifuged, or otherwise separated from the
liquid portion.
Precipitation is assisted through the use of a coagulant,
an agent which causes smaller particles suspended in
solution to gather into larger aggregates.

 When colloidal matter such as emulsified

oil or metal bearing particles are treated
with metal salts and lime or NaOH, the
metal salts act as primary coagulants.
The positively charged metal ions
combine with the negative colloid particles
and neutralize their charge.
The particles then repel each other less
strongly and tend to coagulate or collect
into larger particles.

Chemicals for precipitation

Lime Calcium Oxide, CaO
Ferrous Sulfate Fe(SO4)3
Alum Al2(SO4)3.14H2O
Ferric Chloride FeCl3
Polymer

Advantages
Chemical precipitation is a well-established
technology with ready availability of
equipment and many chemicals.
Some treatment chemicals, especially lime,
are very inexpensive.
Completely enclosed systems are often
conveniently self-operating and low
maintenance.

Disadvantages

Competing reactions, varying levels of

alkalinity and other factors typically make
calculation of proper chemical dosages
impossible.
Chemical precipitation may require working
with corrosive chemicals, increasing operator
safety concerns.
The addition of treatment chemicals, especially
lime, may increase the volume of waste sludge
up to 50 percent.
Large amounts of chemicals may need to be
transported to the treatment location.
Polymers can be expensive.

APPLICATION OF DIFF. CHEMICALS

Lime Calcium Oxide, CaO

Produces calcium carbonate in

wastewater which acts as a coagulant
for hardness and particulate matter.
Often used in conjunction with other
coagulants, since:
(1) by itself, large quantities of lime are
required for effectiveness, and
(2) lime typically generates more sludge
than other coagulants.

Ferrous Sulphate Fe(SO4)3

Typically used with lime to soften water.
The chemical combination forms
calcium sulfate and ferric hydroxide.
Wastewater must contain dissolved
oxygen for reaction to proceed
successfully.
Ferric Chloride FeCl3
Reacts with alkalinity or phosphates to
form insoluble iron salts.

Alum or Filter Alum Al2(SO4)3.14H2O

Used for water softening and phosphate removal.
Reacts with available alkalinity (carbonate,
bicarbonate and hydroxide) or phosphate to form
insoluble aluminium salts.

Polymer
High molecular weight compounds (usually
synthetic)
which can be anionic, cationic, or non-ionic.
When added to wastewater, can be used for
charge neutralization for emulsion-breaking, or
as bridge-making coagulants, or both. Can also
be used as filter aids and sludge conditioners.

Secondary treatment

Secondary treatment
The

objective of secondary treatment is the further

treatment of the effluent from primary treatment to
remove the residual organics and suspended solids

Aerobic

biological treatment is performed in the

presence of oxygen by aerobic microorganisms
(principally bacteria) that metabolize the organic
matter in the wastewater, thereby producing more
microorganisms and inorganic end-products
(principally CO2, NH3, and H2O, CH4)

Several

aerobic biological processes are used for

secondary treatment differing primarily in the
manner in which oxygen is supplied to the
microorganisms and in the rate at which organisms
metabolize the organic matter

Contd
High-rate

biological processes are characterized by

relatively small reactor volumes and high
concentrations of microorganisms compared with
low rate processes

Consequently,

the growth rate of new organisms is

much greater in high-rate systems because of the
well controlled environment

The

microorganisms must be separated from the

treated wastewater by sedimentation to produce
clarified secondary effluent

The

sedimentation tanks used in secondary

treatment, often referred to as secondary clarifiers,
operate in the same basic manner as the primary
clarifiers described previously

 The

biological solids removed during secondary

sedimentation, called secondary or biological
sludge, are normally combined with primary
sludge for sludge processing

Common

high-rate processes include the

activated sludge processes, trickling filters or
biofilters, oxidation ditches and rotating
biological contactors (RBC)

combination of two of these processes in

series (e.g. biofilter followed by activated
sludge) is sometimes used to treat municipal
wastewater containing a high concentration of
organic material from industrial sources

Biological unit processes

In the case of domestic wastewater treatment,
the objective of biological treatment is:
To stabilize the organic content
To remove nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus

Types:
Aerobic Processes
Anoxic Processes
Anaerobic Processes
Combined Aerobic-AnoxicAnaerobic Processes
Pond Processes

Attached Growth
Suspended Growth
Combined Systems

Aerobic
Maturation
Facultative
Anaerobic

Attached Growth Process

What can this process do?
1.
2.
3.
4.

Remove
Remove
Remove
Remove

Nutrient
dissolved organic solids
suspended organic solids
suspended solids

Cross-section of an attached
growth biomass film
Oxygen (the natural or forced draft)

Wastewater
Organic/ nutrient
Biomass : viscous, jelly-like substance containing bacteria
filter media

Major Aerobic Biological

Processes

ACTIVATED SLUDGE
PROCESSES

 The most common suspended growth

process used for municipal wastewater
treatment is the activated sludge process.

Activated sludge plant involves:

1.wastewater aeration in the presence of a
microbial suspension,
2.solid-liquid separation following
aeration,
3.discharge of clarified effluent,
4.wasting of excess biomass, and
5.return of remaining biomass to the
aeration tank.

Process
The process involves air oroxygenbeing
introduced into a mixture of primary treated or
screened sewage or industrial wastewater
combined with organisms to develop a
biologicalfloc which reduces theorganiccontent
of thesewage.
The combination of wastewater and biological
mass is commonly known asmixed liquor.
In all activated sludge plants, once the
wastewater has received sufficient treatment,
excess mixed liquor is discharged into settling
tanks and the treated supernatantis run off to
undergo further treatment before discharge.

 Part of the settled material, thesludge, is

returned to the head of theaerationsystem to
re-seed the new wastewater entering the tank.
This fraction of the floc is calledreturn
activated sludge(R.A.S.). Excess sludge is
calledsurplus activated sludge(S.A.S.)
orwaste activated sludge(W.A.S).
S.A.S is removed from the treatment process
to keep the ratio of biomass to food supplied
in the wastewater in balance.
S.A.S is stored in sludge tanks and is further
treated by digestion, either under anaerobic or
aerobic conditions prior to disposal.

Advantages
Diverse; can be used for one household up a
huge plant
Removes organics
Oxidation and Nitrification achieved
Biological nitrification without adding chemicals
Biological Phosphorus removal
Solids/ Liquids separation
Stabilization of sludge
Capable of removing ~ 97% of suspended solids
The most widely used wastewater treatment
process

Disadvantages

Does not remove color from industrial wastes and

may increase the color through formation of highly
colored intermediates through oxidation
Does not remove nutrients, tertiary treatment is
necessary
Problem of getting well settled sludge
Recycle biomass keeps high biomass concentration
in aeration tanks

Plug
Types
Flow
of Activated Sludge Processes
wastewater is routed through a series of
channels constructed in the aeration basin.
Wastewater Flows to tank & is treated as it
winds its way through the tank.
As the wastewater goes through the system,
BOD and organics concentration are greatly
reduced.

 Variations to this method include:

adding return sludge and/or in decreasing
amounts at various locations along length of
the tank;
wastewater BOD is reduced as it passes
through tank,
air requirements and number of bacteria
required also decrease accordingly.

Complete Mix
wastewater may be immediately mixed
throughout the entire contents of the aeration
basin (mixed with oxygen and bacteria).
This is the most common method used today.
Since the wastewater is completely mixed
with bacteria and oxygen, the volatile
suspended solids concentration and oxygen
demand are the same throughout the tank.

Contact Stabilization
Microorganisms consume organics in the
contact tank.
Raw wastewater flows into the contact tank
where it is aerated and mixed with bacteria.
Soluble materials pass through bacterial cell
walls, while insoluble materials stick to the
outside.
Solids settle out later and are wasted from the
system or returned to a stabilization tank.
Microbes digest organics in the stabilization
tank, and are then recycled back to the
contact tank, because they need more food.

 Detention time is minimized, so the size of

the contact tank can be smaller.
Volume requirements for the stabilization tank
are also smaller because the basin receives
only concentrated return sludge, there is no
incoming raw wastewater.
Often no primary clarifier before the contact
tank due to the rapid uptake of soluble and
insoluble food.

Extended Aeration
Used to treat industrial wastewater containing
soluble organics that need longer detention
times.
This is the same as complete mix, with just a
longer aeration.
Advantage - long detention time in the aeration
tank; provides equalization to absorb
sudden/temporary shock loads.
Less sludge is generally produced because some
of the bacteria are digested in the aeration tank.
One of the simpler modifications to operate.

Design Consideration
The quality or characteristics of raw waste
water to be treated.
The desired quality or characteristics of
effluent or treated waste water.
The type of reactor that will be used.
Volumetric and organic loading that will be
applied to the reactor.

 Amount of O2 required and the aeration

system will provide to supply O2 and to
support mixing.
The quantity of sludge that will be
generated and wasted for its further
management.
Besides these nutrient requirements of
microbes, environmental conditions under
which plant operated.

Design steps
The design computations require the
determination of:
Volume or dimensions of the aeration tank
Amount of O2 required and power needed
for aeration
Quantity of sludge that will produced for
particular waste and treatment conditions
Volume and dimensions of sec. settling
tank

Design criteria
No of aeration tanks, N= min. 2 (small plants)
= 4 or more (large
plants)
Depth of waste water in tank= 3-4.5 m (usually)
= 4.5-7.5 m (diffuse
aeration)
= 1-6 m (surface
aeration)

 Air requirement:
I. 20-55 m3 of air/Kg of BOD removed for
diffuse aeration when F/M => 0.3
II.70-115 m3 air/Kg of BOD removed for
diffuse aeration when F/M <= 0.3
Power required for complete mixing : 1014 kW/1000 m3 of tank volume for surface
aeration system

Activated Sludge Process

Types of AS Systems:
Conventional, Complete-Mix,
Sequencing Batch Reactor
Extended Aeration
Deep Tank
Deep Shaft

Advantages/Disadvantages
Advantages

Disadvantages

Flexible, can adapt to

minor pH, organic and
temperature changes
Small area required
Degree of nitrification
is controllable
Relatively minor odor
problems

High operating costs

(skilled labor, electricity,
etc.)
Generates solids
requiring sludge disposal
Some process
alternatives are
sensitive to shock loads
and metallic or other
poisons
Requires continuous air
supply

Activated Sludge Principles

Wastewater is aerated in a tank

Bacteria are encouraged to grow by providing

Oxygen
Food (BOD)
Nutrients
Correct temperature
Time

As bacteria consume BOD, they grow and multiply

Treated wastewater flows into secondary clarifier
Bacterial cells settle, removed from clarifier as sludge
Part of sludge is recycled back to activated sludge tank, to
maintain bacteria population
Remainder of sludge is wasted

Kinetics of Microbial Growth

Biochemical reaction

Biomass concentration.
The concentration of biomass, X (mg/L),
increases as a function of time due to
conversion of food to biomass:

Where is the specific growth rate constant (d-1).

This represents the mass of cells
produced/mass of cells per unit of time.

Effect of substrate concentration on

growth rate constant

Monod Kinetics
Growth rate
Growth rate constant, , is a function of the
substrate concentration, S.
Two constants are used to describe the growth
rate
m (mg/L) is the maximum growth rate constant (the rate
at which the susbtrate concentration is not limiting)
Ks is the half-saturation constant (mg/L) (i.e.,
concentration of S when = m/2

 Biomass production

Where kd represents the endogenous

decay rate (d-1) (i.e., microorganism death
rate).
Substituting the growth rate constant:

 Substrate utilization

Where Y is the yield factor (mg of

biomass produced/mg of food consumed)
Y range:
Aerobic: 0.4 - 0.8 mg/mg

 Food to microorganism ratio (F/M)

Represents the daily mass of food supplied to the
microbial biomass, X, in the mixed liquor
suspended solids, MLSS
Units are Kg BOD5/Kg MLSS/day

 Since the hydraulic retention time, =

V/Qo, then

Typical range of F/M ratio in activated sludge units

Treatment Process

F/M
Kg BOD5/Kg MLSS/day

Extended aeration

0.03 - 0.8

Conventional

0.8 - 2.0

High rate

> 2.0

Design parameters for activated sludge processes

d

F/M

Qr/Q

X (mg/L)

Conventional

5-15

4-8

0.2-0.4

0.25-5

1,500-3,000

Complete-mix

5-15

3-5

0.2-0.6

0.25-1

3,000-6,000

Step-aeration

5-15

3-5

0.2-0.4

0.25-0.75

2,000-3,500

0.2-0.5

1.5-3

1.5-5.0

0.05-0.15

200 500

Contactstabilization

5-15

0.5-1
3-6

0.2-0.6

0.25-1

1,000-3,000
4,00010,000

Extendedaeration

20-30

18-36

0.05-0.15

0.75-1.5

3,000-6,000

High-rate
aeration

5-10

0.5-2

0.4-1.5

1-5

4,00010,000

Pure-oxygen

8-20

1-3

0.25-1.0

0.25-0.5

6,000-8,000

Process

Modifiedaeration

Operational characteristics of activated sludge processes

Process

Flow model

Aeration system

BOD5 removal
efficiency (%)

Conventional

Plug-flow

Diffused air,
mechanical aerators

85-95

Complete-mix

Complete-mix

Diffused air,
mechanical aerators

85-95

Step-aeration

Plug-flow

Diffused air

85-95

Modified-aeration

Plug-flow

Diffused air

60-75

Contactstabilization

Plug-flow

Diffused air,
mechanical aerators

80-90

Extended-aeration

Complete-mix

Diffused air,
mechanical aerators

75-95

High-rate aeration

Complete-mix

Diffused air,
mechanical aerators

75-90

Pure-oxygen

Complete-mix

Mechanical aerators

85-95

Schematic of activated sludge unit

Activated Sludge Design Equations

Mass balance of biomass production
Influent biomass + biomass production = effluent
biomass + sludge wasted

Substitute biomass production equation

Assume that influent and effluent biomass concentrations

are negligible and solve

Mass balance of food substrate

Influent substrate + substrate consumed = effluent
susbtrate + sludge wasted substrate

Substitute substrate removal equation

Assume that no biochemical action takes place in

clarifier. Therefore the substrate concentration in the
aeration basin is equal to the substrate concentrations in
the effluent and the waste activated sludge. Solve:

Overall equations
Combine the mass balance equations for food and biomass:

The cell residence time is:

and the hydraulic retention time is,= V/Qo

Substitute and rearrange:

Compute the F/M ratio

1.3 Trickling Filter Biological Air Filters

The trickling filter consists of a bed of a highly permeable
medium to which microorganisms are attached and through which
wastewater is percolated or trickled.
The filter media usually consist of either rock (slag is also used)
or a variety of plastic packing materials.
Rock filter beds are usually circular and the liquid wastewater is
distributed over the top of the bed by a rotary distributor, and the
wastewater was allowed to contact the media for a short time.
The collected liquid is passed to a settling tank where the solids
are separated from the treated wastewater. In practice, portion of
the liquid collected in the under-drain system or the settled
effluent is recycled, usually to dilute the strength of the incoming
wastewater and to maintain the biological slime layer in a moist
condition.

 The limitations of the trickling filter included a relatively high

incidence of clogging, the long rest period required, and the
relatively low loading that could be used.

Trickling Filters
A

trickling filter or biofilter consists of a basin or

tower filled with support media such as stones,
plastic shapes, or wooden slats
Wastewater is applied intermittently, or
sometimes continuously, over the media
Microorganisms become attached to the media
and form a biological layer or fixed film
Organic matter in the wastewater diffuses into
the film, where it is metabolized
Oxygen is normally supplied to the film by the
natural flow of air either up or down through the
media, depending on the relative temperatures
of the wastewater and ambient air
The thickness of the biofilm increases as new
organisms grow

 Periodically,

portions of the film slough off the

media
The sloughed material is separated from the
liquid in a secondary clarifier and discharged to
sludge processing
Clarified liquid from the secondary clarifier is
the secondary effluent and a portion is often
recycled to the biofilter to improve hydraulic
distribution of the wastewater over the filter

Trickling Filters

Advantages/Disadvantages
Advantages
Good quality (80-90%
BOD5 removal) for 2stage efficiency could
reach 95%
Moderate operating
costs (lower than
activated sludge)
Withstands shock
loads better than other
biological processes

Disadvantages
High capital costs
Clogging of
distributors or beds

TRICKLING FILTER
PROCESSES

 Trickling filter is anattached growth

processi.e. process in which microorganisms
responsible for treatment are attached to an inert
packing material. Packing material used in
attached growth processes include rock, gravel,
slag, sand, redwood, and a wide range of plastic
and other synthetic materials.

Process Description
The wastewater in trickling filter is distributed
over the top area of a vessel containing nonsubmerged packing material.
Air circulation in the void space, by either
natural draft or blowers, provides
oxygen for the
microorganisms
growing as an attached
biofilm.

 The organic material present in the

wastewater metabolised by the biomass
attached to the medium.
The biological slime grows in thickness as the
organic matter abstracted from the flowing
wastewater is synthesized into new cellular
material.

Flow Diagram for Trickling

Filters
Recirculation= A portion of the TF effluent recycled through the filter
Recirculation ratio (R) = returned flow (Or)/ influent flow (Q)
Recycle

Or
Final
clarifier

Final
effluent

Influent

Primary
clarifier

Trickling
filter

Waste
sludge

Advantages
simplicity of operation
resistance to shock loads
low sludge yield
low power requirements

Disadvantages
relatively low BOD removal (85%)
high suspended solids in the effluent (20 -30
mg/L)
little operational control

Types of Filters
Trickling filters are classified as high rate or low
rate, based on the organic and hydraulic loading
applied to the unit.

 Hydraulic loading rate is the total flow

including recirculation applied on unit area of
the filter in a day.
Organic loading rate is the 5 day 20C BOD,
excluding the BOD of the recirculant, applied
per unit volume in a day.
Recirculation is generally not adopted in low
rate filters.
A well operated low rate trickling filter in
combination with secondary settling tank may
remove 75 to 90% BOD and suitable for
treatment of low to medium strength domestic
wastewaters.

 The high rate trickling filter, single stage or

two stage are recommended for medium to
relatively high strength domestic and
industrial wastewater.
The BOD removal efficiency is around 75 to
90%.
Single stage unit consists of a primary
settling tank, filter, secondary settling tank
and facilities for recirculation of the effluent.
Two stage filters consist of two filters in series
with a primary settling tank, an intermediate
settling tank which may be omitted in certain
cases and a final settling tank.

Process Design
Generally trickling filter design is based on
empirical relationships to find the required
filter volume for a designed degree of
wastewater treatment.
NRC equations commonly used.
NRC (National Research Council of USA)
equations give satisfactory values when there
is no re-circulation, the seasonal variations in
temperature are not large and fluctuations
with high organic loading.

 NRC equations:These equations are

applicable to both low rate and high rate
filters. The efficiency of single stage or
first stage of two stage filters, E2is given
by
E =100
2

1+0.44(F1.BOD/V1.Rf1)1/2
For the second stage filter, the efficiency
E3is E
given
by
3=100

[(1+0.44)/(1- E2)]
(F2.BOD/V2.Rf2)1/2

where E2= % efficiency in BOD removal of single

stage or first stage of two-stage filter
E3=% efficiency of second stage filter
F1.BOD= BOD loading of settled raw sewage in single
stage of the two-stage filter in kg/d
F2.BOD=F1.BOD(1- E2)= BOD loading on second-stage
filter in kg/d
V1= volume of first stage filter, m3

Rf1= 1+R
(1+R/10)2
V2= volume of second stage filter, m 3
R=recycle ratio
Rf1= Recirculation factor for first stage, F=recirculation
factor
R = Recirculation ratio for first stage filter
1

Rf2= Recirculation factor for second stage,

R2= Recirculation ratio for second stage filter.

Q. Problem: Design a low rate filter to treat

6.0 Mld of sewage of BOD of 210 mg/l. The
final effluent should be 30 mg/l and organic
loading rate is 320 g/m3/d.
Solution: Assume 30% of BOD load removed in
primary sedimentation i.e., = 210 x 0.30 = 63
mg/l. Remaining BOD = 210 - 63 = 147 mg/l.
Percent of BOD removal required = (147-30) x
100/147 = 80%
BOD load applied to the filter = flow x conc. of
sewage (kg/d) = 6 x 106x 147/106= 882 kg/d
To find out filter volume, using NRC equation
E2=100
1+0.44(F1.BOD/V1.Rf1)1/2

 80 =100Rf1= 1, (no
recirculation)

1+0.44(882/V1)1/2
V1= 2704 m3
Depth of filter = 1.5 m, Filter area =
2704/1.5 = 1802.66 m2, and Diameter = 48
m
Hydraulic loading rate = 6 x 106/103x
1/1802.66 = 3.33m3/d/m2< 4 hence o.k.
Organic loading rate = 882 x 1000 / 2704 =
326.18 g/d/m3which is approx. equal to
320

Rotating Biological Contactors

Rotating

biological contactors (RBCs) are fixedfilm reactors similar to biofilters in that

organisms are attached to support media

In

the case of the RBC, the support media are

slowly rotating discs that are partially
submerged in flowing wastewater in the reactor

Oxygen

is supplied to the attached biofilm from

the air when the film is out of the water and
from the liquid when submerged, since oxygen
is transferred to the wastewater by surface
turbulence created by the discs' rotation

Sloughed

pieces of biofilm are removed in the

same manner described for biofilters

Contd
High-rate

biological treatment processes, in

combination with primary sedimentation, typically
remove 85 % of the BOD5 and SS originally present
in the raw wastewater and some of the heavy metals

Activated

sludge generally produces an effluent of

slightly higher quality, in terms of these constituents,
than biofilters or RBCs

When

coupled with a disinfection step, these

processes can provide substantial but not complete
removal of bacteria and virus

However,

they remove very little phosphorus,

nitrogen, non-biodegradable organics, or dissolved
minerals.

Rotating Biological Contactors

It consists of a series of circular disks of polystyrene or
polyvinyl chloride that are submerged in wastewater
and rotated slowly through it
The disk rotation alternately contacts the biomass with
the organic material and then with atmosphere for
adsorption of oxygen
Excess solids are removed by shearing forces created
by the rotation mechanism

Advantages/Disadvantages
Advantages
Short contact periods
Handles a wide range
of flows
Easily separates
biomass from waste
stream
Low operating costs
Short retention time
Low sludge production
Excellent process
control

Disadvantages
Need for covering
units installed in cold
climate to protect
against freezing
Shaft bearings and
mechanical drive units
require frequent
maintenance

Major Anaerobic Biological

Processes

Anaerobic Contact Process

Untreated wastewater is mixed with
recycled sludge solids and then
digested in a sealed reactor
The mixture is separated in a clarifier
The supernatant is discharged as
effluent, and settled sludge is
recycled

Advantages/Disadvantages
Advantages
Methane recovery
Small area required
Volatile solids
destruction

Disadvantages
Heat required
Effluent in reduced
chemical form
requires further
treatment
Requires skilled
operation
Sludge to be
disposed off is
minimal

Upflow Anaerobic Sludge

Blanket
Wastewater flows
upward through a sludge
blanket composed of
biological granules that
decompose organic
matter
Some of the generated
gas attaches to granules
that rise and strike
degassing baffles
releasing the gas
Free gas is collected by
special domes
The effluent passes into
a settling chamber

Tertiary / advanced treatment

Tertiary and/or advanced

treatment
Tertiary and/or advanced wastewater treatment is
employed when specific wastewater constituents
which cannot be removed by secondary
treatment must be removed
Because

advanced treatment usually follows

high-rate secondary treatment, it is sometimes
referred to as tertiary treatment

However,

advanced treatment processes are

sometimes combined with primary or secondary
treatment (e.g., chemical addition to primary
clarifiers or aeration basins to remove
phosphorus) or used in place of secondary
treatment (e.g., overland flow treatment of
primary effluent)

An adaptation of the activated sludge process is often used to

remove nitrogen and phosphorus

Effluent from primary clarifiers flows to the biological reactor,

which is physically divided into five zones by baffles and weirs

In sequence these zones are: (i) anaerobic fermentation zone

(characterized by very low dissolved oxygen levels and the
absence of nitrates); (ii) anoxic zone (low dissolved oxygen
levels but nitrates present); (iii) aerobic zone (aerated); (iv)
secondary anoxic zone; and
(v) final aeration zone

The function of the first zone is to condition the group of

bacteria responsible for phosphorus removal by stressing them
under low oxidation-reduction conditions, which results in a
release of phosphorus equilibrium in the cells of the bacteria

On subsequent exposure to an adequate supply of oxygen and

phosphorus in the aerated zones, these cells rapidly
accumulate phosphorus considerably in excess of their normal
metabolic requirements

Phosphorus is removed from the system with the waste

activated sludge

Most of the nitrogen in the influent is in the ammonia form,

and this passes through the first two zones virtually
unaltered

In the third aerobic zone, the sludge age is such that

almost complete nitrification takes place, and the ammonia
nitrogen is converted to nitrites and then to nitrates

The nitrate-rich mixed liquor is then recycled from the

aerobic zone back to the first anoxic zone

Here de-nitrification occurs, where the recycled nitrates, in

the absence of dissolved oxygen, are reduced by
facultative bacteria to nitrogen gas, using the influent
organic carbon compounds as hydrogen donors

The nitrogen gas merely escapes to atmosphere. In the

second anoxic zone, those nitrates which were not recycled
are reduced by the endogenous respiration of bacteria

In the final re-aeration zone, dissolved oxygen levels are

again raised to prevent further de-nitrification, which would
impair settling in the secondary clarifiers to which the
mixed liquor then flows

Disinfection

Selective destruction of diseasecausing organisms

1. Chlorine
2. UV Light
3. Ozone (gas)

Chlorine Disinfection
1.
2.

Liquid chlorine
Sodium hypochlorite (tablets)

Note: not allowed to discharge chlorine

(it must be removed after disinfection)
* chlorine removed with either
a. sulfur dioxide
b. sodium bisulfite

Tablet Chlorinator
(Calcium Hypochlorite)

Chlorine Disinfection

To be effective
Chlorine concentration
Contact time
Proper mixing
Temperature
Number and type of organisms

Chlorine Dose

UV Disinfection

UV Light
Specific wavelengths have biocidal
properties (~254 nm)
Quartz, mercury-vapor lamps
Cleaning required
No residual

UV Disinfection

a specific wavelength of light

UV Disinfection

Ozone Disinfection

O3 a gas, must be generated on-site

Bubbled into a basin (or pipeline) with treated
effluent

Great disinfectant!

No residualozone degrades to oxygen, O2

Costs More, Need equipment and electricity

Ozone Disinfection

Flow Diagram

Ozone Generation

1.

Unit operations in advanced

treatment
Removal of suspended solids:
Removal of suspended solids in advanced
treatment implies the removal of those
materials that have been carried over from a
secondary settler.

Microstraining

Rotating drum-type filter to screen suspended solids

Filtering media consists of finely woven stainless steel

fabric with mesh size of 23-35 microns

Fabric is mounted on periphery and water is allowed to

pass from inside to the outside

Coagulation and filtration

A method in which certain chemicals are rapidly

dispersed in wastewater to change the characteristics
of the suspended particles so that they coalasce and
sink rapidly
In industrial wastewater treatment, coagulation is
frequently used for oily emulsions and finely divided
and non-settlable solids such as pigments, paper-fibre,
meat and tannery effluents
Most widely used coagulants are aluminium sulphate,
ferric sulphate and ferric chloride
Typical reactions are:
Al2(SO4)3 + 6H2O
2Al(OH)3 + 3H2SO4
3H2SO4 + 3Ca(HCO3)2
6H2CO3

3CaSO4 + 6H2CO3

6CO2 + 6H2O

Overall reaction is represented as:

Al2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(HCO3)2
2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4

ii. Removal of dissolved solids

 Adsorption

Solvent

on activated carbon

extraction

Ion

exchange

Reverse

osmosis

Electrodialysis

 In

many situations, where the risk of public

exposure to the reclaimed water or residual
constituents is high, the intent of the treatment is to
minimize the probability of human exposure to
enteric viruses and other pathogens

Effective

disinfection of viruses is believed to be

inhibited by suspended and colloidal solids in the
water, therefore these solids must be removed by
advanced treatment before the disinfection step

The

sequence of treatment often specified in the

United States is: secondary treatment followed by
chemical coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and
disinfection

This

level of treatment is assumed to produce an

effluent free from detectable viruses

Municipal Sewage Treatment

o

Primary treatment

Removing suspended and floating particles by

mechanical processes

Secondary treatment

Treating wastewater biologically to decompose

suspended organic material; reduces BOD

Municipal Sewage Treatment

o

Sewage Sludge

Solids remaining after primary and

secondary sewage treatment has been
completed

Tertiary treatment

Advanced wastewater treatment methods

that are sometimes employed after primary
and secondary treatments
Reduce phosphorus and nitrogen

Municipal Sewage Treatment

Individual Septic SystemSeptic Tank