Chapter 1 Database Introduction

ChapterOne
Introductionto
DatabaseSystems
Chapter1Objectives
Somecommonusesofdatabasesystems.
Characteristicsoffilebasedsystems.
Problemswithfilebasedapproach.
Meaningofthetermdatabase.
MeaningofthetermDatabaseManagementSystem(DBMS).
TypicalfunctionsofaDBMS.
MajorcomponentsoftheDBMSenvironment.
PersonnelinvolvedintheDBMSenvironment.
HistoryofthedevelopmentofDBMSs.
AdvantagesanddisadvantagesofDBMSs.
Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

321)
12/14/15
Chapter1ObjectivesContd
PurposeofthreelevelANSISPARCdatabasearchitecture.
Contentsofexternal,conceptual,andinternallevels.
Purposeofexternal/conceptualandconceptual/internal
mappings.
Meaningoflogicalandphysicaldataindependence.
DistinctionbetweenDDLandDML.
Aclassificationofdatamodels.
ArchitectureforMultiUserDatabaseSystem

321)
12/14/15
Database systems
Today, Databases are essential to
every business. They are used to

maintain internal records, to
present data to customers and
clients on the World-Wide-Web,
and to support many other
commercial processes.
Databases are likewise found at
the core of many modern
organizations.
4

321)
12/14/15
ExamplesofDatabaseApplications
Purchasesfromthesupermarket
Purchasesusingyourcreditcard
Bookingaholidayatthetravelagents
Usingthelocallibrary
Takingoutinsurance
Rentingavideo
ECommerce
Banking
Socialmedia(ingeneraltheWWW)
5

321)
12/14/15
Approaches in
Organizations
Data management passes through the different
levels of development along with the

development in technology and services. These
levels could best be described by categorizing
the levels into three levels of development.
Even though there is an advantage and a
problem to overcome at each new level, all
methods of data handling are in use even
today to some extent. The major three levels
are;
Manual Approach
Traditional File Based Approach
Database Approach
6

321)
12/14/15
Manual Approach
Cards and paper are used for the purpose
Files for as many event and objects as the organization has are used to
store information.
Each of the files containing various kinds of information is labelled and
stored in one or more cabinets.
The cabinets could be kept in safe places for security purpose based on
the sensitivity of the information contained in it ( Cabinet Lockers).
Insertion and retrieval is done by searching first for the right cabinet
then for the right file then the information.
One could have an indexing system to facilitate access to the data
Limitations of the Manual approach
Prone to error
Difficult to update, retrieve, integrate
You
have the data but it is difficult to compile the information
Limited to small size information

Cross
referencing is difficult

321)
12/14/15
FileBasedSystems
Collectionofapplicationprogramsthatperform
servicesfortheendusers(e.g.reports).
Eachprogramdefinesandmanagesitsowndata.

321)
12/14/15
FileBasedProcessing

321)
12/14/15
LimitationsofFileBasedApproach
Separationandisolationofdata
Eachprogrammaintainsitsownsetofdata.
Usersofoneprogrammaybeunawareof
potentiallyusefuldataheldbyotherprograms.
Duplicationofdata
Samedataisheldbydifferentprograms.
Wastedspaceandpotentiallydifferentvalues
and/ordifferentformatsforthesameitem.
10

321)
12/14/15
LimitationsofFileBasedApproach
Datadependence(ProgramDataDependence)
Filestructureisdefinedintheprogramcode.
Anychangeinthedatastructurenecessitatesachangeinthe
programaswell
Incompatiblefileformats
Programsarewrittenindifferentlanguages,andsocannot
easilyaccesseachothersfiles.(C,COBOL)DataStructures
aredifferentfordifferentLanguages
FixedQueries/Proliferationofapplicationprograms
Programsarewrittentosatisfyparticularfunctions.
Anynewrequirementneedsanewprogram.
11

321)
12/14/15
DatabaseApproach
Problemsoffileapproacharosebecause:
Definitionofdatawasembeddedinapplicationprograms,
ratherthanbeingstoredseparatelyandindependentofthe
applications.
Nocontroloveraccessandmanipulationofdatabeyond
thatimposedbyapplicationprograms.
Solution(Result):
ThedatabaseandDatabaseManagementSystem(DBMS).
ThisapproachsolvestheproblemsoftheFilebased
Approach
12

321)
12/14/15
Database
Sharedcollectionoflogicallyrelateddata(anda
descriptionofthisdata),designedtomeetthe
informationneedsofanorganization.
Systemcatalogue(metadata)providesdescription
ofdatatoenableprogramdataindependence.
Logicallyrelateddatacomprisesentities,
attributes,andrelationshipsofanorganizations
information.
13

321)
12/14/15
DatabaseManagementSystem(DBMS)
Asoftwaresystemthatenablesuserstodefine,
create,maintain,andcontrolaccesstothe
database.
(Database)applicationprogram:acomputer
programthatinteractswithdatabasebyissuingan
appropriaterequest(SQLstatement)totheDBMS.
14

321)
12/14/15
DatabaseManagementSystem(DBMS)
15

321)
12/14/15
DatabaseApproachContd..
Datadefinitionlanguage(DDL).
Permitsspecificationofdatatypes,structuresandany
dataconstraints.
Allspecificationsarestoredinthedatabase.
EnablestheCreation,AlterationandRemovalofa
DatabaseObject
Datamanipulationlanguage(DML).
Generalenquiryfacility(querylanguageretrieval)ofthe
data.
Inadditiontoquerying,wecanalsohavemanipulationof
Data(AddingNewinfo,Updatinginfo,Deletinginfo)
16

321)
12/14/15
DatabaseApproachAccessControl
Controlledaccesstodatabasemay
include:(User/Roledefinition,Privilege
Assignment/Revocation,Access
Enforcement)
asecuritysystem
anintegritysystem
aconcurrencycontrolsystem
arecoverycontrolsystem
auseraccessiblecatalogue.
17

321)
12/14/15
DatabaseViews
TheDatabaseApproachintroducesalittle
complexityonthepartoftheenduser.
AlthoughtheDatabaseisasharedcollection,users
areinterestedintheirspecificdataneeds
Aviewallowseachusertohavehisorherown
viewofthedatabase.
Aviewisessentiallysomesubsetofthedatabase.
DataIrrelevanttoauserisnotatallvisible
18

321)
12/14/15
ViewsBenefits
Reducecomplexity
Providealevelofsecurity
Provideamechanismtocustomizetheappearance
ofthedatabase
Presentaconsistent,unchangingpictureofthe
structureofthedatabase,eveniftheunderlying
databasestructureischanged
19

321)
12/14/15
ComponentsofDBMSEnvironment
20
In A DBMS Environment there are Five basic

Components
Hardware
Software
Data
Procedure
People
12/14/15
321)
Hardware
CanrangefromaPCtoanetworkofcomputers.
Includesallthenecessaryinput,output,storage
andbackupdevices
Software
DBMS,operatingsystem,networksoftware(if
necessary)andalsotheapplicationprograms.
Data
Datausedbytheorganizationandadescriptionof
thisdatacalledtheschema.
21

321)
12/14/15
Procedures
Instructionsandrulesthatshouldbeappliedto
thedesignanduseofthedatabaseandDBMS.
People
DifferentRolestakenbypeoplewhiledesigningand
usingaDatabasesystems
22

321)
12/14/15
RolesintheDatabaseEnvironment
DataAdministrator(DA)
Responsible on management of data resources.
This involves in database planning, development,

maintenance of standards policies and procedures
at the conceptual and logical design phases.
DatabaseAdministrator(DBA)
This is more technically oriented role. DBA is
responsible for the physical realization of the

database. It is involved in physical design,
implementation, security and integrity control of
the database.
AlsodealswithOptimizingtheperformanceofthesystem
23

321)
12/14/15
Database Designers
DatabaseDesigners(LogicalandPhysical)
Identifies the data to be stored and choose the
appropriate structures to represent and store the

data.
Should understand the user requirement and
should choose how the user views the database.
Involve on the design phase before the
implementation of the database system.
We have two distinctions of database
designers, one involving in the logical

&conceptual design and another
involving in physical design.
24

321)
12/14/15
Database DesignersContd
Logical and Conceptual DBD
Identifies data (entity, attributes and relationship) relevant to the
organization
Identifies constraints on each data
Understands data and business rules in the organization
Sees the database independent of any data model at conceptual
level and considers one specific data model at logical design
phase.
Physical DBD
Takes logical design specification as input and decide how it
should be physically realized.

Maps the logical data model on the specified DBMS with respect
to tables and integrity constraints. (DBMS dependent designing)
Selects specific storage structure and access path to the
database
Designs security measures required on the database
25

321)
12/14/15
Application Programmers
System analyst determines the user
requirement and how the user wants to

view the database.
The application programmer implements
these specifications as programs; code,
test, debug, document and maintain the
application program.
The application programmer
determines the interface on how to
retrieve, insert, update and delete
data in the database.
26

321)
12/14/15
EndUsers(naiveandsophisticated)
Nave Users:
Sizable proportion of users
Unaware of the DBMS
Only access the database based on their access
level and demand
Use standard and pre-specified types of queries.
Sophisticated Users
Users familiar with the structure of the Database
and facilities of the DBMS.

Have complex requirements
Have higher level queries
27

321)
12/14/15
HistoryofDatabaseSystems
Firstgeneration
HierarchicalandNetwork
Secondgeneration
Relational
Thirdgeneration
ObjectRelational
ObjectOriented
28

321)
12/14/15
AdvantagesofDBMSs
Controlofdataredundancy
Dataconsistency
Moreinformationfromthesameamountofdata
Sharingofdata
Improveddataintegrity
Improvedsecurity
Enforcementofstandards
Economyofscale
29

321)
12/14/15
AdvantagesofDBMSs
Balanceconflictingrequirements
Improveddataaccessibilityandresponsiveness
Increasedproductivity
Improvedmaintenancethroughdataindependence
Increasedconcurrency
Improvedbackupandrecoveryservices
30

321)
12/14/15
DisadvantagesofDBMSs
Complexity
Size
CostofDBMS
Additionalhardwarecosts
Costofconversion
Performance
Higherimpactofafailure
31

321)
12/14/15
ObjectivesofThreeLevelANSISPARC
Architecture
Allusersshouldbeabletoaccesssamedata.
Ausersviewisimmunetochangesmadeinother
usersviews.
Usersshouldnotneedtoknowphysicaldatabase
storagedetails.
32

321)
12/14/15
ObjectivesofThreeLevelANSISPARC
Architecture
DBAshouldbeabletochangedatabasestorage
structureswithoutaffectingtheusersviews.
Internalstructureofdatabaseshouldbeunaffected
bychangestophysicalaspectsofstorage.
DBAshouldbeabletochangeconceptualstructure
ofdatabasewithoutaffectingallusers.
33

321)
12/14/15
ANSISPARCThreeLevelArchitecture
34

321)
12/14/15
ExternalLevel
Usersviewofthedatabase.
Describesthatpartofdatabasethatisrelevanttoa
particularuser.
ConceptualLevel
Communityviewofthedatabase.
Describeswhatdataisstoredindatabaseand
relationshipsamongthedata.
35

321)
12/14/15
InternalLevel
Physicalrepresentationofthedatabaseonthe
computer.
Describeshowthedataisstoredinthedatabase.
ThisishowtheOSandDBMSviewData
36

321)
12/14/15
DifferencesbetweenThreeLevelsof
ANSISPARCArchitecture
37

321)
12/14/15
DataIndependence
MainConceptisUpperlayersareimmuneto
changesinthelowerlayers
LogicalDataIndependence
Referstoimmunityofexternalschemastochangesin
conceptualschema.
Conceptualschemachanges(e.g.addition/removalof
entities)shouldnotrequirechangestoexternal
schemaorrewritesofapplicationprograms.
Obviouslyparticularuserswillbeaffectedbutnotall
users
38

321)
12/14/15
DataIndependence
PhysicalDataIndependence
Referstoimmunityofconceptualschematochangesin
theinternalschema.
Internalschemachanges(e.g.usingdifferentfile
organizations,storagestructures/devices)shouldnot
requirechangetoconceptualorexternalschemas.
39

321)
12/14/15
Schema Mapping- Provision for

Data Independence
ANSI-SPARC has three Layers of Describing
Organizational Data
The DBMS is responsible for mapping between these
three types of schema.

External/Conceptual Mapping
This enables the DBMS to map names in the users
view on to the relevant part of the conceptual schema.

Conceptual/Internal Mapping
This enables the DBMS to find the actual record or
combination of records in physical storage that

constitute a logical record in the conceptual schema,
together with any constraints to be enforced on the
operations for that logical record.
40

321)
12/14/15
DataIndependenceandtheANSISPARC
ThreeLevelArchitecture
41

321)
12/14/15
DatabaseLanguages
DataDefinitionLanguage(DDL)
AllowstheDBAorusertodescribeandname
entities,attributes,andrelationshipsrequiredforthe
application
plusanyassociatedintegrityandsecurityconstraints.
42

321)
12/14/15
DatabaseLanguages
DataManipulationLanguage(DML)
Providesbasicdatamanipulationoperationsondata
heldinthedatabase.
ProceduralDML
allowsusertotellsystemexactlyhowtomanipulate
data.
NonProceduralDML
allowsusertostatewhatdataisneededratherthan
howitistoberetrieved.
FourthGenerationLanguages(4GLs)
AutomatedCASEtools
43

321)
12/14/15
DataModel
Defined:Integratedcollectionofconceptsfordescribingdata,relationships
betweendata,andconstraintsonthedatainanorganization.
DataModelcomprises:
astructuralpart;
amanipulativepart;
possiblyasetofintegrityrules.
CanhaveThreetypesofModels(InlinewithANSISPARC)
1. anexternaldatamodel,torepresenteachusersviewofthe
organization,sometimescalledtheUniverseofDiscourse(UoD);
2. aconceptualdatamodel,torepresentthelogical(orcommunity)view
thatisDBMSindependent;
3. aninternaldatamodel,torepresenttheconceptualschemainsuchaway
thatitcanbeunderstoodbytheDBMS.
44

321)
12/14/15
DataModel
Purpose
Torepresentdatainanunderstandableway.
Categoriesofdatamodelsinclude:
Objectbased
Recordbased
Physical.
45

321)
12/14/15
DataModels
ObjectBasedDataModels
basedontheconceptofEntity(distinctobject)
EntityRelationshipConsidersonlythedataaspect
ObjectOrientedconsidersbothdataandbehaviour.
RecordBased Data Models (Hierarchical, Network and
Relational)
basedonfixedformatrecords
Eachrecordhasfixednumberoffields
eachfieldisofafixedlength
PhysicalDataModels
Modelsfordescribingphysicalstoragecharacterstics
321)
12/14/15
Hierarchical Data Models

Record type is referred to as node or segment
The top node is the root node
Nodes are arranged in a hierarchical structure as
sort of upside down tree

A parent node can have more than one child node
A child node can only have one parent node
The relationship between parent and child is oneto-many
Relation is established by creating physical link
between stored records (implemented as pointer)
To add new record type or relationship, the
database must be redefined and then stored in a
new form.
47

321)
12/14/15
HierarchicalDataModel
48

321)
12/14/15
Network Data model

Allows record types to have more than
one parent unlike hierarchical model

A network data models sees records as
set members
Each set has an owner and one or more
members
Allows many to many relationship
between entities
Like hierarchical model network model is
a collection of physically linked records.
Allow member records to have more than
one owner
49

321)
12/14/15
NetworkDataModel
50

321)
12/14/15
1st Generation Data

Models
Hierarchical and Network
Navigational and procedural
approach to data processing

Need to know the physical
Database to access the data
Treat records as individual
objects linked with pointers i.e.
cannot process in sets
51

321)
12/14/15
Relational Data Model (2nd

Gen.)
Relational
Model for Large Shared Data Banks famous paper of Dr. Edgar F.
Codd
Terminologies originates from the branch of mathematics called set theory and
predicate logic and is based on the mathematical concept called Relation
Can define more flexible and complex relationship
Viewed as a collection of tables called Relations equivalent to collection of
record types
Relation: Two dimensional table
Stores information or data in the form of tables rows and columns
A row of the table is called tuple equivalent to record
A column of a table is called attribute equivalent to fields
Data value is the value of the Attribute
Records are related by the data stored jointly in the fields of records in two
tables or files. The related tables contain information that creates the
relationship
Uses Declarative ( as Opposed to Procedural) approach to Database
Processing
Can Treats Records as a Group (Set)
52

321)
12/14/15
RelationalDataModel
53

321)
12/14/15
PhysicalDataModels
Used in Internal Database Design
structure / Class/ Type Def
Eg. Frame Memory, Unifying Model
54

321)
12/14/15
ConceptualModelling
Conceptualschemaisthecoreofasystemsupportingall
userviews.
Shouldbecompleteandaccuraterepresentationofan
organizationsdatarequirements.
Conceptualmodellingisprocessofdevelopingamodelof
informationuseinanorganizationthatisindependentof
implementationdetailssuchasthetargetDBMS,
applicationprograms,programminglanguages,orany
otherphysicalconsiderations.
Resultisaconceptualdatamodel.
55

321)
12/14/15
Logical Modeling
Conceptual models are also referred to
as logical models in the some

literature.
However, critically thinking, we make
a distinction between conceptual and
logical data models.
The conceptual model is independent
of all implementation details, whereas
the logical data model assumes
knowledge of the underlying data
model of the target DBMS.
56

321)
12/14/15
FunctionsofaDBMS
DataStorage,Retrieval,andUpdate.
AUserAccessibleCatalog.
TransactionSupport.
ConcurrencyControlServices.
RecoveryServices.
57

321)
12/14/15
FunctionsofaDBMS
AuthorizationServices.
SupportforDataCommunication.
IntegrityServices.
ServicestoPromoteDataIndependence.
Utility Services( Import/Export, Task scheduler,
etc)
58

321)
12/14/15
SystemCatalog
Repositoryofinformation(metadata)describing
thedatainthedatabase.
OneofthefundamentalcomponentsofDBMS.
Typicallystores:
names,types,andsizesofdataitems;
constraintsonthedata;
namesofauthorizedusers;
dataitemsaccessiblebyauserandthetypeofaccess;
usagestatistics.
59

321)
12/14/15
ComponentsofaDBMS
60

321)
12/14/15
ComponentsofDatabaseManager(DM)
61

321)
12/14/15
Multi-User DBMS Architectures

There are Common architectures that
are used to implement multi-user

database management systems,
Teleprocessing,
File-server, and
Clientserver.
62

321)
12/14/15
Tele-Processing
The traditional architecture for multi-user
systems was teleprocessing, where there is

one computer with a single central
processing unit (CPU) and a number of
terminals
User terminals are typically dumb ones,
incapable of functioning on their own. Just
cabled to the main computer.
63

321)
12/14/15
Disadvantage
Unfortunately, this architecture placed a
tremendous burden on the central

computer, which not only had to run the
application programs and the DBMS, but
also had to carry out a significant amount
of work on behalf of the terminals (such as
formatting data for display on the screen).
64

321)
12/14/15
File-Server Architecture
In a file-server environment, the processing is
distributed about the network, typically a local

area network (LAN). The file-server holds the
files required by the applications and the DBMS.
However, the applications and the DBMS run on
each workstation requesting files from the fileserver when necessary.
In this way, the file-server acts simply as a
shared hard disk drive. The DBMS on each
workstation sends requests to the file-server for
all data that the DBMS requires that is stored on
disk.
65

321)
12/14/15
File-Server Contd
66

321)
12/14/15
The file-server architecture three main disadvantages

(1) There is a large amount of network
traffic.
(2) A full copy of the DBMS is required on
each workstation.
(3) Concurrency, recovery, and integrity
control are more complex because there
can be multiple DBMSs accessing the same
files at the same time.
67

321)
12/14/15
ClientServer Architecture
To overcome the disadvantages of the first
68
two approaches and accommodate an

increasingly decentralized business
environment, the clientserver architecture
was developed.
Clientserver refers to the way in which
software components interact to form a
system.
As the name suggests, there is a client
process, which requires some resource, and
a server, which provides the resource.
There ofisDatabase
no requirement
that the client and
Fundamentals
Systems (INSY
12/14/15
321)
server must reside on the same machine.
Possible combinations of the

clientserver topology.
69

321)
12/14/15
Traditional Two tier

Applications
70

321)
12/14/15
Two Tier- Problems

The need for enterprise scalability challenged this
traditional two-tier clientserver model.

In the mid-1990s, as applications became more
complex and potentially could be deployed to
hundreds or thousands of end-users, the client
side presented two problems that prevented true
scalability:
A fat client, requiring considerable resources on
the clients computer to run effectively. This
includes disk space, RAM, and CPU power.
A significant client-side administration overhead.
Solution is to go for Three Tier- Architecture
71

321)
12/14/15
Three tier-Client Server Architecture
72

321)
12/14/15

Chapter 1 Database Introduction

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Chapter 1 Database Introduction

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

ChapterOne

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

every business. They are used to

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

levels of development along with the

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

have the data but it is difficult to compile the information

Limited to small size information

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

In A DBMS Environment there are Five basic

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

This involves in database planning, development,

responsible for the physical realization of the

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

appropriate structures to represent and store the

designers, one involving in the logical

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

should be physically realized.

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

requirement and how the user wants to

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

and facilities of the DBMS.

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Schema Mapping- Provision for

three types of schema.

view on to the relevant part of the conceptual schema.

combination of records in physical storage that

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

Fundamentals of Database Systems (INSY

RecordBased Data Models (Hierarchical, Network and

Hierarchical Data Models

sort of upside down tree