Power

Power
&
&
Political
Political Behavior
Behavior

A
ADefinition
Definition of
of Power
Power
Power
A capacity that A has to
influence the behavior of B so
that B acts in accordance with
As wishes.
Dependency
Bs relationship to A
when
A
possesses
something
that
B
requires.

Contrasting
Contrasting Leadership
Leadership and
and Power
Power
These two concepts are closely interwined, but
there are differences.
Leadership
Focuses on goal
achievement.
Requires
goal
compatibility with
followers.
Focuses influence
downward.
Research Focus
Leadership
styles
and
relationships
with followers

Power
Used as a means
for
achieving
goals.
Requires follower
dependency.
Used
to
gain
lateral
and
upward influence.
Research Focus
Power
tactics
for
gaining compliance

CONS
Power and politics often
have negative connotations
because people associate
them with attempts to use
organizational
resources
for personal advantage and
to achieve personal goals
at the expense of other
goals.

PROS
Managers can use power to
control people and other
resources so that they
cooperate and help to
achieve an organizations
current goals.
Managers can use power to
engage in politics and
influence
the
decisionmaking process to help
promote
new,
more
appropriate
organizational
goals.

BASES
POWER

Formal
Power

Coercive
Power

Reward
Power

Personal
Power

Legitimate
Power

Expert
Power

Referent
Power

Bases
Bases of
of Power:
Power: Formal
Formal Power
Power
It is established by an individuals
position in an organization; conveys the
ability to coerce or reward, from formal
authority, or from control of information.
The person receives these power bases
because of the specific authority or roles they
are assigned in the organization.

Coercive
Coercive Power
Power
A power base dependent on fear.
Coercive power is the ability to apply punishment.
Managers have coercive power through their authority to
reprimand, demote, and fire employees.
Labor unions might use coercive power tactics, such as
withholding services, to influence management in
collective agreement negotiations.
Team members sometimes apply sanctions, ranging from
sarcasm to ostracism, to ensure that co-workers conform
to team norms.

Coercive
Coercive Power
Power
Many firms rely on the coercive power of team
members to control co-worker behavior.
For example, 44 percent of production
employees at the CAMI automobile plant in
Ingersoll,
Ontario,
believe
that
team
members use coercive power to improve coworker performance. The coercive power of
team members is also apparent at Eaton
Corp.'s forge plant in South Bend, Indiana.
"They say there are no bosses here," says an
Eaton Corp. employee, but if you do
something wrong, you find one pretty fast.

Reward Power

Compliance achieved based on the ability to

distribute rewards that others view as valuable.
Reward power is derived from the person's ability to
control the allocation of rewards valued by others
and to remove negative sanctions (i.e., negative
reinforcement).

Reward Power
Managers have formal authority that gives them power
over the distribution of organizational rewards such as
pay, promotions, time off, vacation schedules, and work
assignments.
Employees also have reward power over their bosses
through the use of 360-degree feedback systems.
Employee feedback affects the supervisor's promotions
and other rewards, so bosses tend to behave differently
towards employees after 360-degree feedback is
introduced.

Legitimate
Legitimate Power
Power
It is an agreement among organizational members that
people in certain roles can request certain behaviors of
others. This perceived right partly comes from formal job
descriptions as well as from informal rules of conduct.
Executives have considerable legitimate power, but all
employees also have this power based on company rules
and government laws.
For example, an organization might give
employees the right to request customer
files if this information is required for their
job.

Legitimate
Legitimate Power
Power
It also depends on mutual agreement from
those expected to abide by this authority. Your
boss has a power to make you work overtime
partly depends on your agreement to this power.
Legitimate power is the person's authority to
make discretionary decisions as long as followers
accept this discretion.

Legitimate
Legitimate Power
Power
People in high power distance cultures (i.e., those
who accept an unequal distribution of power) are
more likely to comply with legitimate power than are
people in low power distance cultures.
Thus, an employee in Mexico (a high power
distance culture) is more likely than
someone in the US (a low power distance
culture) to accept an order, particularly
when the person's right to give that order is
uncertain.

Legitimate
Legitimate Power
Power
Legitimate power is also stronger in some organizations than
in others. A 3M scientist might continue to work on a project
after being told by superiors to stop working on it. This is
because the 3M culture supports an entrepreneurial spirit,
which includes ignoring formal authority from time to time.
More generally, employees are becoming less tolerant of
legitimate power. They increasingly expect to be involved in
decisions rather than be told what to do.
"People won't tolerate the command-and-control
mode," says Bank of Montreal CEO Tony Comper.
Thus, the command style of leadership that often
guided employee behavior in the past must be
replaced by other forms, particularly expert and
referent power, which are described below.

Bases
Bases of
of Power:
Power: Personal
Personal Power
Power
This type of power originate from the powerholder's
own characteristics. In other words, people bring
these power bases to the organization.
It is not a formal position in an organization to have
power. You do not need to be a manager.

Expert
Expert Power
Power
It originates from within the person. It is an
individual's or work unit's capacity to influence others
by possessing knowledge or skills that they want. It is
a result of expertise, skills and knowledge.
For instance, civilians working at Canada's
Department of National Defence have
acquired a lot of power because they know
how to operate the bureaucracy. Military
personnel are rotated around various
Canadian Forces bases, so they depend on
the civilians for their expertise as the
corporate memory.

Expert
Expert Power
Power

Employees are gaining expert power as our society

moves from an industrial to a knowledge-based
economy. Employers are more dependent on
employees to achieve their corporate objectives.
Job applicants can demand generous
salaries and preferential working conditions
because of their expert power.

Referent Power
People have referent power when others identify with them, like
them, or otherwise respect them.
It is based on identification with a person who has desirable
resources or personal traits.
It develops out of administration of another and a desire to be like
that person.
It is largely a function of the person's interpersonal skills and usually
develops slowly.
Referent power is usually associated with charismatic leadership.
Charisma is often defined as a form of
interpersonal
attraction
whereby
followers
develop a respect for and trust in the charismatic
individual.

Which
Which bases
bases of
of power
power are
are most
most important?
important?
Research suggest that:
Personal sources of power are most effective.
They are positively related to employees satisfaction
with supervision, their organizational commitment,
performance.

Model of Power and Influence

Sources
SourcesofofPersonal
PersonalPower
Power
Expertise
Expertise
Reputation
Reputation
Personal
Personalcharacteristics
characteristics
Network
connections
Network connections
Information
Information

Sources
SourcesofofPosition
PositionPower
Power
Centrality
Centrality
Criticality
Criticality
Flexibility
Flexibility
Visibility
Visibility
Relevance
Relevance
POWER
POWEROF
OFAN
AN
INDIVIDUAL
INDIVIDUAL

Selection
Selectionofofproper
proper
strategy
to
strategy to
influence
influenceothers
others

Assertive
Assertiveresponses
responses
totoinappropriate
inappropriate
influence
influence
attempts
attemptsby
by
others
others

Increasing
Increasing
authority
authorityvia
via
upward
influence
upward influence
INFLUENCE
INFLUENCEOVER
OVER
OTHERS
OTHERS

Dependency:
Dependency: The
The Key
Key To
To Power
Power
The General Dependency Postulate
The greater Bs dependency on A,
the greater the power A has over B.
Possession/control
of
scarce
organizational resources that others
need makes a manager powerful.
Access to optional resources (e.g.,
multiple suppliers) reduces the
resource holders power.

Dependency:
Dependency: The
TheKey
KeyTo
ToPower
Power
What Creates Dependency
Importance of the resource to the organization
If they want what you have, what you control is meaningful for
them, then you create dependency.
Scarcity of the resource
Scarcity-dependency relationship .
If something is plentiful, possession of it will not increase your
power.
Non-substitutability of the resource
The fewer viable substitutability for a resource, the more
power the control over that resource provides.

Power
Power Tactics
Tactics
Power Tactics
Ways
in
which
individuals translate
power bases into
specific actions.

Influence
InfluenceTactics
Tactics: :
Legitimacy
Legitimacy
Rational
Rationalpersuasion
persuasion
Inspirational
Inspirationalappeals
appeals
Consultation
Consultation
Exchange
Exchange
Personal
Personalappeals
appeals
Ingratiation
Ingratiation
Pressure
Pressure
Coalitions
Coalitions

Influence
Influence Tactics
Tactics
Legitimacy:
Relying on ones authority
position or stressing that a
request is in accordance with
organizational policies or rules.

Rational persuasion:
Presenting logical arguments and
factual evidence to demonstrate
that a request is reasonable.

Inspirational appeals:

Developing
emotional
commitment by appealing to a
targets values, needs, hopes,
and aspirations.

Consultation:
Increasing
the
targets
motivation and support by
involving hi or her in deciding
how the plan or change will be
done

Influence
Influence Tactics
Tactics
Exchange:
Rewarding the target with
benefits or favors in exchange
for following a request.

Ingratiation:
Using flattery, praise, or friendly
behavior prior to making a
request.

Personal appeals:
Asking for compliance based on
friendship or loyalty.

Pressure:
Using
warnings,
repeated
demands, and threats.

Coalitions:
Enlisting the aid of other people to
persuade the target or using the
support of others as a reason for the
target to agree.

Factors
Factors Influencing
Influencing the
the Choice
Choice and
and
Effectiveness
Effectiveness of
of Power
Power Tactics
Tactics
Sequencing of tactics

How the request is perceived

Softer to harder tactics

work best.
Skillful use of a tactic
Relative power of the tactic user

Some tactics work better

when applied downward
or upward.
The type of request attaching to the
tactic

Is
the
legitimate?

request

Is the request consistent

with the targets values?
The culture of the organization

Culture affects
choice of tactic.

users

Country-specific cultural factors

Local
certain
others.

values
tactics

favor
over

Influence
Influence Tactics
Tactics
Some tactics are usually more effective than others.
Specifically,
evidence
indicates
that
rational, persuasion, inspirational appeals,
and consultation tend to be the most
effective.

On the other hand pressure tends to frequently

backfire and is typically the least effective of the nine
tactics.
You can also increase your chance of success by
using more than one type of tactic at the same time or
sequentially, as long as your choices are compatible.

Influence
Influence Tactics
Tactics
Upward influence
Rational
persuasion

Downward influence
Rational
persuasion
Inspirational
appeals
Pressure

Consultation
Ingratiation
Exchange
Legitimacy

Lateral influence
Rational persuasion
Consultation
Ingratiation
Exchange
Legitimacy
Personal appeals
Coalitions

Power
Power in
in Groups:
Groups: Coalitions
Coalitions
Coalitions
Clusters of individuals
who temporarily come
together to a achieve
a specific purpose.

Seek
Seekto
tomaximize
maximizetheir
their
size
sizeto
toattain
attaininfluence.
influence.
Seek
Seekaabroad
broadand
anddiverse
diverse
constituency
constituencyfor
forsupport
support
of
oftheir
theirobjectives.
objectives.
Occur
Occurmore
morefrequently
frequentlyinin
organizations
organizationswith
withhigh
high
task
taskand
andresource
resource
interdependencies.
interdependencies.
Occur
Occurmore
morefrequently
frequentlyifif
tasks
tasksare
arestandardized
standardized
and
androutine.
routine.

Insert Figure 18.2 here

POLITICAL
POLITICAL BEHAVIOR
BEHAVIOR

Political Behavior (Cont.)

Characteristics of political processes

Power

Politica
l
process

Influence

Political
Political Behavior
Behavior
Activities that are not required as part of ones formal
role in the organization, but that influence, or attempt
to influence, the distribution of advantages or
disadvantages within the organization.
It is outside ones specified job requirement.
It requires some attempt to use ones power bases.
It encompasses efforts to influence the goals, criteria,
or processes used for decision making when we state
that politics is concerned with distribution of
advantages
and
disadvantages
within
the
organization.

Political
Political Behavior
Behavior
They are such as:

Withholding key information from decision makers

Joining a coalition
Whistle-blowing
Spreading rumors
Leaking
confidential
information
about
organizational activities to the media
Exchanging favors with others in the organization
for mutual benefit
Lobbying on behalf of or against a particular
individual or decision alternative

Political
Political Behavior
Behavior
Legitimate Political Behavior
Normal everyday politics
Such as:
Complaining to your
supervisor
Bypassing the chain
of command
Obstructing
organizational
policies through
inaction
We see this type more
than the other.

Illegitimate Political
Behavior
Extreme political behavior
that violates the implied rules
of the game.
Such as:
Sabotage
Groups
employees
simultaneously
calling sick

of

It is risky. You can be fired.

Politics
Politics Is
Is in
in the
the Eye
Eye of
of the
the Beholder
Beholder
Political Label
Management Label

Effective

1. Blaming others

vs.

Fixing responsibility

2. Kissing up

vs.

Developing working relationships

3. Apple polishing

vs.

Demonstrating loyalty

4. Passing the buck

vs.

Delegating authority

5. Covering your rear vs.

Documenting decisions

6. Creating conflict

vs.

Encouraging change and innovation

7. Forming coalitions

vs.

Facilitating teamwork

8. Whistle blowing

vs.

Improving efficiency

9. Scheming

vs.

Planning ahead

10. Overachieving

vs.

Competent and capable

11. Ambitious

vs.

Career-minded

12. Opportunistic

vs.

Astute

13. Cunning

vs.

Practical-minded

14. Arrogant

vs.

Confident

15. Perfectionist

vs.

Attentive to detail

Source: Based on T. C. Krell, M. E.

Mendenhall, and J. Sendry, Doing
Research in the Conceptual Morass of
Organizational
Politics,
paper
presented at the Western Academy of
Management Conference, Hollywood,
CA, April 1987.

Factors
Factors That
ThatInfluence
Influence
Political
Political Behaviors
Behaviors

Employee
EmployeeResponses
Responsesto
to
Organizational
OrganizationalPolitics
Politics

Avoiding
AvoidingAction
Action: :

Defensive
Defensive
Behaviors
Behaviors

Over-conforming
Over-conforming
Buck
Buckpassing
passing
Playing
Playingdumb
dumb
Stretching
Stretching
Stalling
Stalling

Avoiding
AvoidingBlame
Blame: :
Buffing
Buffing
Playing
Playingsafe
safe
Justifying
Justifying
Scapegoating
Scapegoating
Misrepresenting
Misrepresenting

Avoiding
AvoidingChange
Change: :
Prevention
Prevention
Self-protection
Self-protection

Is
Is A
APolitical
Political Action
Action Ethical?
Ethical?

Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism

Rights
Rights

Source: Adapted from G.F. Cavanagh, D. Moberg, and M. Valasquez,

The Ethics of Organizational Politic, Academy of Management Review,
July 1981, p. 368. Reprinted with permission.

Justice
Justice

Summary
Summary
Political behavior can be engaged in either to
proactively promote self-interest or to defensively
protect self-interest (Arkin, 1981). Proactive
behaviors include responses such as assertiveness,
ingratiation, coalitions, upward appeals, and
exchanges of benefits (Kipnis et al., 1980).
Defensive behaviors include avoiding action, such as
by playing dumb or passing the buck, avoiding
blame, such as by justifying or scapegoating, and
avoiding change, such as by protecting turf (Ashforth
& Lee, 1990).

Summary
Summary
Political behavior by an individual can generate
outcomes such as more favorable evaluations and
job promotions (Ferris & Judge, 1991).
Political behavior can be functional or dysfunctional.
Functional
political
behavior
enhances
the
achievement of organizational goals and does not
harm the organization (George & Jones, 2002).

Summary
Summary
An example of this is forming coalitions with
managers who have similar interests to
lobby for an organization to pursue new
strategies.
Other functional political activities include
obtaining tasks and responsibilities that
provide greater control over resources (e.g.,
being assigned to the budgeting group) or
seeking indirect control over resources
through engaging in networking to build
alliances, the focus of the strategic
contingencies model of power.

Summary
Summary
Alternatively, individuals seeking to acquire power
may engage in activities that protect their own
interests but do not help the organization or activities
that are destructive to the organization.
In fact, political behavior is often associated with the
exploitation of legitimate systems of influence for
individual rather than organizational ends (Mintzberg,
1983).
Some examples are withholding or filtering
organizational information from others who
need it to perform their jobs and building
empires for the sake of empire building
rather than to increase organizational
effectiveness.

Summary
Summary
Political behaviors generally promote an individual's selfinterest at the expense of other employees' interests
and the organization's goals, effects of political
behaviors are quite different for the politician as
compared with effects for other individuals in the
organization. Political behavior in organizations also has
been consistently negatively associated with individual
and company performance and positively associated
with employee stress, job dissatisfaction and turnover
(e.g., Bozeman et al.,1996).

Summary
Summary
Models of organizational justice have been used to
explain some of these negative effects (e.g., Ferris &
Kacmar, 1992). When political behavior in organizations
is rewarded, other employees perceive that the
organization is not fair or just. For instance, employees
usually expect that promotions, awards, and pay raises
will be based on merit, rather than political
considerations, and become dissatisfied when this
expectation is violated (Cropanzano et al., 1997).

Impression
Impression Management
Management (IM)
(IM)
Impression Management
The process by which
individuals attempt to
control the impression
others form of them.

IM
IMTechniques
Techniques: :
Conformity
Conformity
Excuses
Excuses
Apologies
Apologies
Self-Promotion
Self-Promotion
Flattery
Flattery
Favors
Favors

Source: Based on B. R. Schlenker, Impression Management (Monterey, CA:

Brooks/Cole, 1980); W. L. Gardner and M. J. Martinko, Impression
Management in Organizations, Journal of Management, June 1988, p. 332;
and R. B. Cialdini, Indirect Tactics of Image Management Beyond Basking,
in R. A. Giacalone and P. Rosenfeld (eds.), Impression Management in the
Organization (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1989), pp. 4571.

Association
Association

Impression
Impression management
management (IM)
(IM)
Impression management (IM), originated by Erving
Goffman (1959), describes a central aspect of role
theory: how individual actors create, maintain, defend,
and often enhance their social identities through
assumptions, settings, props, and scripts in a play
metaphor. IM explains the motivations behind complex
human interactions and performances.
IM is the goal-directed attempt to influence others
perceptions about a person, a group, and/or an
organization regarding an object or event by providing
self-assessed
beneficial
information
in
social
interactions.

Impression
Impression management
management (IM)
(IM)
The goal for the aforementioned attempt is to gain an
advantageous first impression. The motive for this goal
is based on the assumption that the target audiences
impressions about the individuals, groups, or
organizations become reality of the target audience.
Authors, philosophers, and social science researchers
have long interpreted the reality each individual entity
acts and believes in as a stage. In each stage,
humans, individually or in groups, and organizations
play their part on this world stage according to
William Shakespeare (As You Like It, Scene 2, Act 7)1.

Impression
Impression Management
Management
Impression management is the deliberate 'bending' of the truth
in order to make a favorable impression. Managing impression
includes deliberate use of any or all of:
Dress,
make-up,
hairstyle
and
other
management of visual appearance.
Manner and general behavior, such as being
pleasant, assertive, and so on.
Managing body language to conceal anxieties
or untruths and show openness, etc.
Being economic with the truth, not telling lies
but also not revealing the whole truth.
Exaggeration or complete fabrication of things
that make you look good.
Downplaying or denial of negative factors that
make you look bad.

Discussion
Discussion about
about Impression
Impression Management
Management
To some extent, we are constantly managing impressions
of others in most social circumstances and of course we
want to look good in interviews. However there are two
question that may be asked:
The extent to which it is ethical and
acceptable, both socially and for the
interviewers.
The extent to which it is effective. More
impression
management
does
not
necessarily mean a better impression is
gained.

Discussion
Discussion about
about Impression
Impression Management
Management
Impression management not only happens, it is expected
to happen. For example:
This can cause a dilemma where the
interviewer either marks you down for not
managing impression sufficiently (for
example not being smart enough or not
being assertive enough) or managing it
too much (low-cut dresses, boasting,
exaggeration).