Our Galaxy

The Milky Way

Chapter 19

Overview & History

Our Galaxy is a collection of stellar and
interstellar matter stars, gas, dust, neutron
stars, black holes held together by gravity.
Our view of the Galaxy.

History of Galactic (& Extragalactic) Astronomy

1610 - Galileo discovered the Milky Way is comprised of many
stars
1755 - Immanuel Kant theorized that the galaxy has a planar
structure, some nebulae might actually be entire other galaxies or
island universes
1774 -1781 - Messier catalog compiled including Andromeda
galaxy as M31
1781-1802 - William and Caroline Herschel conducted first allsky survey and cataloged 5000 nebulae, resolving some into
their individual stars
1845 - William Parsons (Lord Rosse), using a 72-inch telescope,
classified the nebulae into featureless ellipticals and whirlpool-like
spiral nebulae

History of Galactic (& Extragalactic) Astronomy

1785 - Herschel attempted to determine the shape and size of Galaxy
Assumptions:
All stars have same intrinsic brightness
Star are arranged uniformly throughout the MW
He could see to the edge of the MW

SUN
Herschel could not account well for the effects of dust.
More dust along the disk causes the distribution of stars to drop-off
artificially objects more than a few kpc from the Sun are obscured by
dust.

Weird Units of Distance in Astronomy:

Astronomical Unit (AU) = 93 million miles or 1.5 x 108 km
Distance between Earth and Sun

Light Year = 9.4 x 1012 km

Distance light travels in one year

Parsec = 3 x 1013 km
(or 3.2 light years)
Distance ???
pc (parsecs)
kpc (kiloparsecs)

History of Galactic (& Extragalactic) Astronomy

Kapteyn (early 1900s) used stellar parallax to estimate the true size
of the Galaxy Kapteyn Universe
10kpc diameter and 2kpc thick with the Sun less than a kpc
from the center (rather heliocentric)
Tried to estimate scattering due to ISM gas but determined it
to be insignificant (most obscuration is due to dust
absorption which has a smaller wavelength dependence)
Shapley (1919) observed that globular clusters are distributed
asymmetrically in the sky and that if one assumes they are distributed
about the center of the galaxy, this implies the Sun in not near the
center of the Galaxy
Estimated distances to globular
clusters using variable stars and
P-M relationship
Concluded size to be 100kpc
with Sun 15kpc from center
Still wrongdidnt account for
dust absorption which makes
things look further away

History of Galactic (& Extragalactic) Astronomy

Shapley realized that the globular clusters are all orbiting the center
of our Galaxy and map out the true extent of the Galaxy.

History of Galactic (& Extragalactic) Astronomy

In 1920, the National Academy of Science hosted the Great Debate
concerning the nature of the Spiral Nebulae: were they island
universes outside of the Milky Way?
Shapley had MW size too big and therefore argued
NO, they are part of the Milky Way
Others at that time believed the Kapteyn model of a
much smaller MW and argued YES, they are
separate galaxies.

In 1922-1924 Edwin Hubble resolved the controversy using the superior

100-inch telescope at Mount Wilson. He observed Cepheid variables in
Andromeda and, using the P-M relation (distance method), determined its
distance to be 300kpc -- well outside of the MW (still off by a factor of 2 due to poor
Cepheid calibrations)

Morphology of our Galaxy

Also in the early 1900s, the first kinematic studies of the MW revealed the
velocities of those globular clusters were ~250 km/s, much higher than the
mass of the smaller Kapteyn galaxy model would require. So the galaxy must
contain more stars (and mass) than Kapteyn originally thought in order to keep
the star clusters from flying off.

First detailed kinematic model

(Lindblad 1927) revealed
A spherical component with random
motions (~250 km/s) HALO
A flattened component with
rotational motion measured at 200 to
300 km/s near the Sun DISK
A third component, also spherical,
exists in the center of the galaxy
BULGE
Stars here also move on mostly
random orbits

Morphology of our Galaxy

The three components of our galaxy (disk, halo and bulge)
also differ in the mix of the types of stars they contain
Population I: Hot, blue stars and young open clusters accompanied by
gas and dust are primarily found in the disk of the Milky Way
Population II: red stars and older globular clusters are found in the halo
of the Milky Way

Morphology of our Galaxy

Plotting stars on HR diagrams showed that the populations differed in age and
metallicity (enrichment of elements heavier than Helium):
Pop I young and metal rich
Pop II old and metal poor

Disk mainly Pop I

Halo mainly Pop II
Bulge mix of Pop I and II

Since most stars are

smaller than the sun,
the Milky Way actually
contains far more than
23 billion stars more
like 200 billion

Differential Rotation
Everything in the Galaxy orbits around
the Galactic center
Material closer to the center travels on
faster orbits (takes less time to make
one full orbit)
Similar to the way the planets orbit the
Sun
Orbital periods at different distances
from the Galactic center can tell us the
distribution of mass in the Galaxy
Examining motions of stars in the disk
are most helpful for mapping the
distribution of mass

Differential Rotation
M(R) = 0R (r) dV
Motion at distance R from center depends only on M(R)
That mass behaves as if it were centrally concentrated
For an object with mass m at R, gravity must balance acceleration of
M
circular motion
GM(R)m/R2 = mv2/R
M(R) = v(R)2R/G
R

Measure v(R) and get M(R)

Let (R) = v(R)/R, then
M(R) = (R)2R3/G
v(R) or (R) gives the rotation curve of the Galaxy.

Differential Rotation
Differential galactic rotation produces
Doppler shifts in emission lines from
gas in the Galactic disk

Define Galactic Coordinates

b = galactic latitude in degrees
above/below Galactic disk
l = galactic longitude in degrees from
Galactic Center

Local Standard of Rest

The Sun (and most stars) are on slightly
perturbed orbits that resemble rosettes making it
difficult to measure relative motions of stars
around the Sun.
Establish a reference frame that is a perfect
circular orbit about the Galactic Center.

Local Standard of Rest - reference frame for measuring velocities in the Galaxy.
Position of the Sun if its motion were completely governed by circular motion
around the Galaxy.

Use cylindrical coordinates for the

Galactic plane to define the Suns
motion w.r.t the Local Standard of Rest

Local Standard of Rest

To determine the Suns motion wrt to LSR, we observe the average
motions of all stars in the Suns vicinity and measure the following:

- o = U (speed away from GC) = -10.4 km/s [7.5 +/-1 km/s]

Z - Zo = W (speed towards NGP) = 7.3 km/s [6.8 (+/- 0.1) km/s]
- o = V (speed in direction of motion) = V = 14.8 km/s [13.5 (+/- 3) km/s]
Bracket values from Francis and Anderson (2009)

The Sun is moving toward the Galactic center, faster

than the LSR, and northward toward the NGP. Net
motion is 19.5 km/s in the direction of constellation
Hercules

Local Standard of Rest

Position and Velocity of the LSR in Galaxy
Ro = 8 kpc (~25,000 light years)
Vo = 220 km/s = 225 kpc/Gyr

Assuming a circular orbit, how long does it take the Sun

to travel around the Galaxy?

223
To = 2Ro/Vo = ___________
Myr
How much mass is there interior to the Suns orbit?
GMm/R2 = mv2/R

9 x 10 M
M = Vo2Ro/G = __________
10

helpful numbers:
3.1x1013 km/pc G=6.67x10-11 m3/kg/s2 M = 2x1030 kg

The Rotation Curve of the Milky Way

Calculate Doppler shifts for a star moving
with velocity at a distance d from the
Sun (i.e. radial velocity w.r.t. LSR)
Radial velocity is:
vr = cos o cos (90 l)
Since cos(90 - x) = sin(x)
vr = cos o sin l
Convert to l (since we cant measure easily) using Law of Sines
sin (90 + )/Ro = sin l/R = cos /Ro
Putting this into the above equation gives

First Oort equation:

can now compute
in terms of
observables vr and l
and known values
o and Ro

The Rotation Curve of the Milky Way

To map out vr throughout Galaxy,
divide the Galaxy into quadrants
based on value of galactic longitude.
Quad I (l<90) - looking to material closest to GC,
[ - 0] gets larger and vr increases. At point of
closest approach (subcentral or tangent point) vr
is at maximum for that line-of-site (los) and then
continues to decrease to Suns orbit. Beyond
Suns orbit, vr becomes negative and increases in
absolute value.
Quad II (180>l>90) - all los pass through orbits
outside of the Suns. No maximum vr but
increases with d.
Quad III (270>l>180) - similar to Quad II but
opposite signs.
Quad IV (l>270) - similar to Quad I except reverse

Measuring the Rotation Curve of the

Milky Way
Measure Doppler motions of gas rather than
stars. Atomic Hydrogen gas permeates the
Galaxy and emits light in the radio part of EM
spectrum at 21-cm wavelength
Using LSR to correct for our motion, assume
circular orbits for the gas and that there is at
least some Hydrogen along any given line-ofsight (at all Galactic Longitudes)
Especially important to have measurable gas at
subcentral/tangent point

Measuring the Rotation Curve of the Milky Way

Find maximum shift of 21-cm line
along given line-of-sight (los)
Assign that Doppler shift to material
at the tangent point (closest
approach to GC)
Rmin = Ro sin l

= o

(Rmin) = [vmax/(Ro sin l)] + o

By studying los longitude values
from 0 to 90 degrees, Rmin will range
from 0 to Ro
Limitations
No gas at subcentral point
Non-circular orbits
At Rmin = 0 and at Ro, difficult to measure curve due to small Doppler shifts

Measuring the Rotation Curve of the Milky Way

Measuring the Rotation Curve of the Milky Way

Since there is no maximum Doppler shift for los away from GC, rotation
curve beyond Ro is more difficult to determine
Need to measure the velocity and distance of material independently
Use Molecular Clouds :
get velocity from radial velocities of CO emission in gas clouds
get distance from spectroscopic parallax of stars forming in clouds

Understanding Rotation Curves

V~

Mass
Radius

For planets in the Solar System, M is dominated by Msun, so M does not

change much with R - Keplarian rotation curve
Inside the Galaxy, M increases with radius, so velocity may stay constant
as mass and radius increase together Flat rotation curve
Outside the Galaxy, as in the Solar System, M remains constant with
increasing R (if most mass ends at visible edge). Then we would expect
the rotation curve to slope downward in Keplarian-like motion.

Understanding Rotation Curves

Since the Milky Way rotation curve shows no drop in velocities beyond the
visible edge of the disk (around R=15 kpc), this indicates the presence of some
additional, non-luminous material Dark Matter (matter too dim or weakly
interacting to be detected by current technology)

Even though Dark Matter is detected through measurements of the

Galactic Disk, it is not necessarily confined to the disk and is likely
to be distributed throughout the Galactic Halo. Most galaxies
appear to exist within these Dark Matter Halos.

What mass distribution do you need to get

velocity to be constant with radius?
If v is constant at some value, vo

Equating the two

expressions for dM(r)/dr

What is the Dark Matter?

Neutrinos: low mass particles that interact via gravity or weak nuclear force.
Most neutrinos, produced from nuclear fusion, pass easily through the
Sun. Common particles but low mass prevents them from contributing
more than ~few percent of dark matter.
WIMPs - Weakly Interacting Massive Particles exotic subatomic particles
predicted via supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model.
Predicted rest mass of 200-500 times that of proton.
Being searched for in particle accelerators and large detector experiments.
MACHOs - Massive Compact Halo Objects
White Dwarf Stars, Red Dwarfs (0.2 Msun), Brown Dwarfs (<0.08 Msun),
Neutron Stars, Black Holes.
Recall that the more massive remnants result from relatively rare high,
mass stellar progenitors.

The Search for Dark Matter (brown or white dwarfs):

MACHOs
The faint foreground
object (brown or white
dwarf) bends the light of
the background star
because of its
gravitational field
The light from the
background star is
focused or lensed by
this effect and the star
appears brighter.
MACHO results acount
for only ~20% of dark
matter

Slight Aside on Determining Distances

We get distances to
nearby planets (e.g. radar
measurements)
That sets the scale for the
solar system (1 AU).
Given 1 AU plus stellar
parallax, we find distances to
nearby stars.
Use these nearby stars,
with known distances, fluxes
and luminosities, to calibrate
Luminosity classes in HR
diagram.
Then spectral class + Flux yields Luminosity + Distance for farther stars
(Spectroscopic Parallax).
Cepheids (variable stars) use P-M relation to determined distances to nearby
galaxies

The HR Diagram: Spectroscopic Parallax

Example:
1) Determine Temperature from
color or spectral type.
Main Sequence

2) Determine Luminosity based on

Main Sequence position.
3) Compare Luminosity with Flux
(apparent brightness).
4) Use inverse square law to
determine distance.

Flux =

Luminosity
4d2

Spiral Structure
Many external galaxies
show spiral structure
Hard to see the
morphology of the MW
(since we are in it!)
Use other galaxies
properties to determine
the nature of the WM
and determine we are
in a spiral galaxy

Spiral Structure
In other galaxies, HII regions and OB associations trace
out spiral arms.

Using spectroscopic
parallax, we can place
the nearby O and B
stars at their proper
distances.
They appear to
delineate spiral arms.
Since O and B stars
are young objects,
spiral arms are
associated with star
formation.
Problem: Cant see

Spiral Structure
Surveys of Giant Molecular Clouds (GMCs) are likely to trace the
spiral arms since these are sites of star formation
positions interior to Suns orbit in Galaxy have some distance
ambiguity
Less distance ambiguity outside of Solar orbit, and better evidence of
arm-like morphology

The Galactic Nucleus

Inner 500pc of Galaxy
Extinction makes optical
studies impossible - use radio
or IR
Observe ionized gas, line
emission, dust, star clusters
Stellar density is 107 stars
per pc3 (compared to 0.1 in
the solar neighborhood)
If the Sun were near the GC
Nearest star would be 1000AU
away
A million stars brighter than
Sirius in the night sky
Total starlight more than 200
times brightness of the full Moon

The Galactic Center

Optical vs Radio observations

The Galactic Center

Radio schematic

75pc

150pc

The Galactic Center

Star Formation

Molecular material in inner 200pc relatively hot and

dense: 104 per cm3 and 70 K
High velocity dispersion (50 km/s) of molecules
Mass: 108 Msun
High density helps star formation but high temps dont
SF rate ~ 1Msun/year

Radio emission shows

bent arc of gas,
filamentary structure
Also seen in IR
Thermal and synchrotron
radiation

X-ray emission (produced

when electrons from
filaments collide with colder
gas cloud) gives gas
temperatures of T=107 to
108 K
Could result from past SN
explosions

Supermassive Black Hole in the Galactic Center

Radio image (80

pc across) shows
feature SgrA and
radio filaments

Radio image (10

pc across) shows
feature known as
SgrA West
center of this is
SgrA*

Investigate IR
stellar motions
in region about
1pc across (a
few lightyears)
to estimate BH
mass

Measure proper motions of stars around

Galactic Center
Adaptive optics at large telescopes improved
ground-based resolution to 0.5 in IR (stellar
positions measured to 0.002)
90 stars identified and proper motions (largest
at 1400 km/s!) centered about SgrA* to within
0.1
Velocities consistent with Keplarian motion (all
mass at center)
M = 2.6 +/- 0.2 x 106 Msun

Curvature of the paths near SgrA* constrain the

volume of the mass to ~ Schwarzchild radius (few x
106 km) Supermassive Black Hole

Additional evidence - X-ray emission

Chandra X-ray image of Sgr A*
showing nucleus and several
thousand other X-ray sources.
During 2-week observation period,
several X-ray flares occurred.
Rapidity of flares indicates they
originate near the Schwarzchild
radius of the BH.
Even during the flares, X-ray
emission from the nucleus is
relatively weak. Suggests that Sgr
A* is a starved black hole, possibly
because explosive events in the
past have cleared much of the gas
from around it.