Why can the smell of

durians be detected even

very far away ?

When a drop of oil is

placed on the surface of
water, the oil spreads out.
Why?

Chapter 2

The
Structure
of the
Atom

Matter
Matter is anything that
occupies space &
has mass.
Is air an example of matter ?

Matter

Element

Atom

Molecule

Compound

Molecule

Ion
+

Element
Substance that consists
of only ONE type
of atom.
Pure substance that cannot be
broken down into simpler
substances by physical /
chemical processes.

Compound
Substance that
contains TWO or
more elements
that are chemically
bonded together.

 Matter is made up of
tiny & discrete particles.
There are spaces
between
these particles.

These particles may

be atoms,
molecules or
ions.

 An atom
is the smallest particle
of an element.
Metals, noble gases, carbon exist
as atoms.

 A molecule is a group of
two or more atoms
which are chemically
bonded together.
oxygen gas, water are examples
of molecules.

 An ion is a
positively-charged
or negatively-charged
particle.
Table salt consists of one ion
Na+ & one ion Cl-

 Particles in matter are

in motion.
Diffusion occurs when particles of
a substance move in between the
particles of another substance.
Diffusion of matter occurs most
rapidly in gases, slower in liquids
& slowest in solids.

 Rate of diffusion depends

on their masses.
Gas with low molecular mass diffuse
faster than those with high molecular
mass.
The rate of diffusion is affected by the
temperature.
The higher the temperature, the
faster the particles move & so the
faster the diffusion.

The Kinetic Theory of Matter

State
Solid
Arrangement of
particles packed
closely
together
in an
orderly
manner.

Liquid

packed
slightly
loose
& not in
an orderly
manner.

Gas

very far
apart from
each other
and in
random
motion.

The Kinetic Theory of Matter

State
Movement of
particles

Solid
vibrate &
rotate
about the
fixed
position.

Liquid
vibrate,
rotate &
move
throughout
the liquid,
collide
each other.

Gas
vibrate,
rotate &
move
freely.
Rate of
collision
greater
than liquid

The Kinetic Theory of Matter

State
Solid
Forces
strong
of
attraction
between
particles

Liquid
Gas
strong,
weak
but weaker
than the
forces in
solid.

The Kinetic Theory of Matter

State
Energy
content
of
particles

Solid
Low

Liquid
higher

Gas
highest

The Kinetic Theory of Matter

State

Solid

Liquid

Gas

Volume

fixed
cannot
be
compressed

fixed
cannot be
compressed
easily

not fixed
can be
compressed
easily

Shape

fixed

not fixed
but take
the shape
of the
container

not fixed

Changes in states of matter

Solid
Sublimation

melting
Sublimation

Freezing

Condensation

Gas

Liquid
Boiling

heating

cooling

 Changes in states of matter

are caused by heating /
cooling.
The kinetic theory of matter is
used to explain the changes in
states of matter.

Melting
When a solid is heated,
particles gain kinetic energy
& vibrate more vigorously.
As the temperature increases, particles
continue to gain more energy until it is
able to overcome the forces that hold
them at fixed position.
At this point, the solid becomes a liquid.

 Melting point can be used

to test the purity of substance.
Each pure substance has its
own definite melting point.
An impure substance melts over a
range of temperatures that is lower
than the melting point of pure
substance.

Boiling
When a liquid is heated,
particles gain kinetic energy &
move faster as the temperature
increases.
Eventually, particles have enough
energy to break the forces that holding
them together.
Particles are now able to move freely &
far apart. A gas is formed.

What is Evaporation ?

Compare & contrast

the boiling &
the evaporation processes.

Boiling
Occurs in the entire
body of liquid

Evaporation
Occurs at the surface
of the liquid

Occurs only at boiling

point

Occurs at any
temperature

Condensation
When a gas is cooled, particles
lose energy & move slower.
Eventually, the movements of particles
become slow enough for the gas to
change into a liquid.
Particles attract one another to form a
liquid.

Freezing
When a liquid is cooled, particles
lose energy & move slower.
As temperature decreases, particles
continue to lose more energy until they
do not have enough energy to move
freely.
Forces formed to hold the particles
together.
At this point, the liquid change into a
solid.

Sublimation
A process by which a solid
changes directly into a gas
without passing through the liquid
state & vice versa.
Substances that undergo sublimation
are iodine, ammonium chloride (NH4Cl),
dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) &
naphthalene.

Change of
state
Solid liquid
Liquid gas
Solid gas

Change in energy

Liquid solid
Gas liquid
Gas solid

Heat energy is
released
( exothermic )

Heat energy is
absorbed
( endothermic )

 At point A, naphthalene exists

as solid.
When the solid is heated, heat
energy is absorbed. Particles gain kinetic
energy & vibrate faster. Temperature
increases from point A to point B.
At B, solid begins to melt. Temperature
does not rise even though heating
continues. Temperature remains constant
because the heat absorbed is used to
overcome the forces between particles.
During this stage, both solid & liquid are
present.

 At C, all the solid has melted.

From C to D, particles in liquid
absorbed heat energy & move
faster. Temperature increases.

 At E, naphthalene exists as
liquid.
When the liquid is cooled, particles
lose kinetic energy & move slower.
At F, liquid begins to freeze. Temperature
remains constant because the heat loss to
the surroundings is exactly balanced by the
heat energy liberated as the particles attract
one another to form a solid. At this
temperature, both solid & liquid are present.

 At G, all the liquid has frozen.

From G to H, particles in solid
release heat energy & vibrate
slower. Thus the temperature decreases.

 During the heating of naphthalene,

water bath is used to ensure
that the naphthalene is heated
evenly. Furthermore, the naphthalene
is highly flammable.
For solid with melting point above 100
C, liquid with higher boiling point than
water such as oil must be used.
The naphthalene is stirred
continuously to ensure an even
heating.

 During the cooling of naphthalene,

the boiling naphthalene is placed
in a conical flask. The air trapped
in the conical flask is a poor conductor
of heat. This helps to minimize the
heat loss to the surroundings which
may affect the accuracy of the freezing
point obtained.

 The naphthalene is stirred

continuously to avoid
supercooling.
Supercooling is a condition in which
the temperature of the cooling liquid
drops below its normal freezing point,
without the appearance of a solid.
The melting point & freezing point of
naphthalene are the same, that is
80 C.

To forgive others
is to be
good to oneself.
~ Still Thoughts