Chapter 3

Learning and Memory

CONSUMER
BEHAVIOR, 8e
Michael Solomon

Learning Objectives
When you finish this chapter you should understand
why:

Its important for marketers to understand how

consumers learn about products and services.

Conditioning results in learning.

Learned associations can generalize to other things,
and why this is important to marketers.

There is a difference between classical and

instrumental conditioning.

We learn by observing others behavior.

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-2

Learning Objectives (cont.)

Memory systems work.
The other products we associate with an individual
product influences how we will remember it.

Products help us to retrieve memories from our past.

Marketers measure our memories about products
and ads.

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-3

The Learning Process

Products as reminders of life
experiences

Products + memory = brand

equity/loyalty

Learning: a relatively
permanent change in
behavior caused by
experience

Incidental learning: casual,

unintentional acquisition of
knowledge
Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-4

Learning is a Process
Our tastes are formed as a
result of a learning process,
sometimes with painful results.

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-5

Behavioral Learning Theories

Behavioral learning theories: assume that learning
takes place as the result of responses to external
events.

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-6

Figure 3.1

Types of Behavioral Learning Theories

Classical conditioning: a
stimulus that elicits a
response is paired with
another stimulus that
initially does not elicit a
response on its own.

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

Instrumental conditioning
(also, operant
conditioning): the
individual learns to
perform behaviors that
produce positive
outcomes and to avoid
those that yield negative
outcomes.
3-7

Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov and his dogs

Rang bell, then squirt dry meat

powder into dogs mouths

Repeated this until dogs

salivated when the bell rang

Meat powder = unconditioned

stimulus (UCS) because natural

reaction is drooling

Bell = conditioned stimulus (UC)

because dogs learned to drool
when bell rang

Drooling = conditioned response

(CR)

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

Click to play
Pavlovs dog game
3-8

Marketing Applications of Repetition

Repetition increases learning

More exposures = increased brand awareness

When exposure decreases, extinction occurs
Example: Izod crocodile on clothes
However, too MUCH exposure leads to advertising
wear out

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-9

Discussion
In the 1980s, the Lacoste
crocodile was an exclusive logo
symbolizing casual elegance.
When it was repeated on baby
clothes and other items, it lost its
cache and began to be replaced
by contenders such as the Ralph
Lauren Polo Player.

Can you think of other logos that

have lost their prestige due to
repetition?
Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-10

Marketing Applications of Stimulus

Generalization
Stimulus generalization: tendency for stimuli similar to
a conditioned stimulus to evoke similar,
unconditioned responses.

Family branding
Product line extensions
Licensing
Look-alike packaging

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-11

Discussion
Some advertisers use well-known songs to promote
their products. They often pay more for the song
than for original compositions.

Why do advertisers do this? How does this relate

to learning theory?

How do you react when one of your favorite songs

turns up in a commercial?

If you worked for an ad agency, how would you

select songs for your clients?

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-12

Instrumental Conditioning
Behaviors = positive outcomes or negative
outcomes

Instrumental conditions occurs in one of these

ways:
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Punishment
Extinction

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-13

Instrumental Conditioning

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-14

Figure 3.2

Instrumental Conditioning (cont.)

Reinforcement schedules include:
Fixed-interval (seasonal sales)
Variable-interval (secret shoppers)
Fixed-ratio (grocery-shopping receipt

programs)
Variable-ratio (slot machines)

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-15

Positive Reinforcement

The power of positive reinforcement.

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-16

Cognitive Learning Theories:

Observational Learning
We watch others and note reinforcements they
receive for behaviors

Vicarious learning
Socially desirable models/celebrities who use
or do not use their products

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-17

Applications of Instrumental Conditioning Principles

Reinforcement of Consumption:
Thank you
Rebates
Follow-up phone calls
Frequency Marketing:
Reinforces regular purchases by giving them
rewards with values that increase along with the
amount purchased
Frequent flyer miles

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-18

Loyalty
to Brands
Rewarding consumers with frequent flyer miles is an effective way to
reinforce them and build brand loyalty.

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-19

Cognitive Learning Theory

Is learning cognitive or not?
Learning conscious or not?
Expectations are created that a stimulus will be

followed by a response, forming expectations

require mental activity so conditioning occurs
based on conscious hypothesis
Evidence for non-conscious knowledge, (people do
process at least some information in automatic passive
way)

Respond to new stimulus according to existing

categories
Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-20

Cognitive Learning Theory

Observational learning:
Occurs when people watch the actions of others

and note reinforcements received for their

behaviors
Learning occurs as a result of vicarious (on
behalf), rather than direct, experience.

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-21

Observational Learning (cont.)

Modeling: imitating others behavior

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-22

Figure 3.3

Applications of Cognitive
Learning Principles
Consumers learn vicariously by seeing others receive
reinforcement for their behaviors.

Marketers can reinforce or punish consumers indirectly by

showing what happens to desirable models who do or do not
use their products.

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-23

Role of Memory in Learning

Memory: acquiring information and storing it over
time so that it will be available when needed

Information-processing approach
Mind = computer and data = input/output

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-24

Figure 3.4

The Role of Memory in Learning

Stages of Memory
Encoding stage
Information entered in a recognizable way
Storage stage
Knowledge integrated into what is already

there and warehoused

Retrieval stage
The person accesses the desired information

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-25

How Information Gets Encoded

Encode: mentally program meaning
The way information is encoded helps to determine
how it will be presented
Brand name linked to physical characteristics of
product, (e.g. Coffee-Mate)

Types of meaning:
Sensory meaning, such as the literal color or

shape of a package
Semantic meaning: symbolic associations, such
as the idea that rich people drink champagne

Episodic memories: relate to events that are

personally relevant

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-26

Memory Systems

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-27

Figure 3.5

Memory Systems
Sensory Memory:
Very temporary storage of information we receive from our
senses

Short-Term Memory (STM):

Limited period of time & limited capacity
Working memory (i.e., holds memory we are currently
processing)

Long-Term Memory (LTM):

Can retain information for a long period of time
Elaboration rehearsal is required: Process involves thinking
about a stimulus and relating it to information already in
memory
Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-28

Associative Networks
Activation models of memory
Associative network of related information
Knowledge structures of interconnected nodes
Hierarchical processing model
[See next slide for an example of an
associative network]

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-29

Associative Networks for Perfumes

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-30

Figure 3.6

Spreading Activation
As one node is activated, other nodes associated
with it also begin to be triggered

Meaning types of associated nodes:

Brand-specific
Ad-specific
Brand identification
Product category
Evaluative reactions

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-31

Levels of Knowledge
Individual nodes = meaning concepts
Two (or more) connected nodes = proposition
(complex meaning)

Two or more propositions = schema

We encode info that is consistent with an existing

schema more readily

E.g. Service scripts: A type of schema consisting of a
sequence of events expected by an individual

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-32

Retrieval for Purchase Decisions

Retrieving information often requires appropriate
factors and cues:

Physiological factors (e.g. age)

Situational factors
Consumer attention; pioneering brand;
descriptive brand names

Viewing environment (continuous activity;

commercial order in sequence)

Postexperience advertising effects

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-33

Retrieval for Purchase Decisions (cont.)

Appropriate factors/cues for
retrieval (cont.):
State-dependent retrieval/mood
congruence effect
Familiarity
Salience/von Restorff effect
(mystery ads)
Visual memory versus verbal
memory

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-34

Pictorial versus Verbal Cues

There is some evidence for the
superiority of visual memory
over verbal memory.

Pictorial ads may enhance

recall, but do not necessarily
improve comprehension.

How many of these Ad icons

can you remember from the
picture alone?

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-35

What Makes Us Forget?

Decay
Interference
Retroactive versus
proactive

Part-list cueing effect

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-36

Products as Memory Markers

Furniture, visual art, and
photos call forth
memories of the past

Autobiographical
memories
The marketing power
of nostalgia
Retro brand: updated
version of a brand
from a prior period
Nostalgia index
Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

Click image for

www.fossil.com

3-37

Discussion
Marketers often evoke memories of the good old
days by marketing products with nostalgic images.
Though it seems this strategy targets only middleaged or older consumers, it can be used toward
college students.

What retro brands are targeted to you? Were these

brands that were once used by your parents?

What newer brands focus on nostalgia, even though

they never existed before?

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-38

Measuring Memory for Marketing Stimuli

Recognition versus recall
The Starch Test (A widely used commercial
measure of advertising recall for magazines)

Problems with memory measures

Response biases
Memory lapses
Memory for facts versus feelings

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-39

Discussion
Ads with celebrities tend to
have very high recall rates.

Name some ads with

celebrities that you can
recall easily. Why does the
celebrity association with
the ad aid your recall?

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-40

Problems with Memory Measures

Response Biases
A contaminated result due to the instrument or the

respondent, rather than the object that is being measured.

Memory Lapses
Unintentionally forgetting information:

Omitting: Leaving facts out

Averaging: Normalizing memories by not

reporting extreme cases

Telescoping: Inaccurate recall of time

Memory for Facts Versus Feelings

Recall is important but not sufficient to alter consumer

preferences
More sophisticated attitude-changing strategies are needed.

Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-41

Team homework!!
Within your teams, choose a product (e.g. GJU
university)

Brainstorm and draw an Associative network for

your team (3-5 levels detailed)

What is your conclusion?!

What nodes would you try to change? and how?
Prentice-Hall, cr 2009

3-42