CHEMICALS OF

LIFE
Barrion, Joy C.
ChE - 5201

Four Main Classes of Polymeric Cell

Compounds
Fats and Lipids
Polysaccharides (cellulose, starch, etc.)
Information-encoded polydeoxyribonucleic and polyribonucleic
acids (DNA, RNA)
Proteins

Biological Polymers may be:

Repetitive Biological Polymers

Nonrepetitive Biological Polymers

Repetitive Biological Polymers

Contain one kind of monomeric subunit
Their functions in the cell is to:
Provide structures with the desired mechanical
strength, chemical inertness, and permeability
Provide a means of nutrient storage
For example, a 1 M glucose (C6H12O6) solution can be stored as
the polymer glycogen (C6H10O5)n

Nonrepetitive Biological Polymers

May contain from several up to 20 different monomer species
Has a fixed molecular weight and monomer composition, and
the monomers are linked together in a fixed, genetically
determined sequence.

The composition of E.coli

Element

Percentage of dry
weight

Carbon

50

Oxygen

20

Nitrogen

14

Hydrogen

Phosphorus

Sulfur

Potassium

Sodium

Calcium

0.5

Magnesium

0.5

Chlorine

0.5

Iron

0.2

All others

~0.3

The predominant elements (hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and

carbon)
Form chemical bonds by completing their outer shells
Lightest elements in the periodic table
Can form multiple bonds (except for hydrogen)
The biochemical compounds assembled from these elements are quite
stable, reacting only slowly with each other, water, and other cellular
compounds
Chemical reactions involving such compounds are catalyzed by biological
catalyst: proteins which are called enzymes.

Phosphorus and Sulfur

Occur in all living things in relatively small amounts
Ionized forms of Na, K, Mg, Ca and Cl
always present in living things
Trace amounts of Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, and Zn
Necessary for proper activation of certain enzymes
Miniscule amounts of B, Al, V, Mo, I, Si, F, and Sn
Required by some organisms
The present count of elements necessary for life is 24.

The solvent within which cells live is water.

High heat of vaporization
High dielectric constant
Ability to ionize into acid and base
Propensity for hydrogen bonding
Extremely important reactant which participates in many enzymecatalyzed reactions

LIPIDS
Biological compounds which are soluble in nonpolar solvents
and practically insoluble in water.
Present predominantly in nonaqueous biological phases,
especially the plasma and organelle membranes
Constitute portions of more complex molecules such as
lipoproteins and liposaccharides.
Fats, which simply serve as polymeric biological fuel storage,
are lipids.

Fatty Acids and Related Lipids

Saturated fatty acids
Simple lipids with the general formula

May be regarded as noninformational biopolymers with a terminal

carboxylic group.
The value of n is typically between 12 and 20 (even numbers) in
biological systems

 Unsaturated fatty acids

Formed upon replacement of a saturated (-C-C-) bond by a double
bond (-C=C-)
For example, oleic acid is the unsaturated counterpart of stearic acid
(n=16)

 The hydrocarbon chain

is nearly insoluble in
water, but the carboxyl
group is very hydrophilic.
The polar group hydrated
with water and the
hydrocarbon tails out on
the air side.
Results to the
condensation of excess
solutes into larger ordered
structures called
micelles.

 Fats esters formed by condensation of fatty acids with glycerol.

The reverse of the fat synthesis reaction is catalyzed by fat-splitting enzymes at

body temperatures in the digestive tract of animals.
Phosphoglycerides related to fats in structure but not function
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) replaces a fatty acid esterified to one end of glycerol.

Fat-soluble Vitamins, Steroids, and Other

Lipids
Vitamin organic substance which is required in trace
amounts for normal cell function.
Essential vitamins cannot be synthesized internally by an
organism.
In their absence in the external medium, the cell cannot survive.

Water-soluble vitamins such as vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

are not lipids
Vitamins A, E, K and D are water-insoluble and dissolve in
organic solvents.

 The hydrophobic nature of lipidsoluble vitamin A (necessary to

prevent night blindness in
human beings) is evident from its
polyisoprene structure.

Steroids a class of lipid

biochemical with the general
structure

 Progesterone can be converted

into cortisone in a two-step
process (microbial then chemical)
Ergosterol, which is provided by
yeast, is converted by sunlight to
vitamin D2 (calciferol)
Cholesterol occurs almost
exclusively in membranes of
animal tissues.

 Prostaglandins formed by oxidation of fatty acids to give

ringed structure in the middle of their hydrocarbon tail.
Regulate biological function at a higher level than hormones.
Poly--hydroxybutyric acid (PHB) an important foodstorage polymer for some bacteria
- the repeating unit is

SUGARS AND POLYSACCHARIDES

Carbohydrates
Organic compounds with general formula (CH2O)n, where n
3.
When photosynthesis occurs, carbon dioxide is converted to
simple sugars (C3 to C9) in reactions driven by the incident
sunlight. These sugars are then polymerized into forms
suitable for structure (cellulose) or sugar storage (starches)
the magnitude of energy transformation is estimated to be
1018 kcal/yr.

D-glucose and Other Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides
simple sugars
smallest carbohydrates containing 3 to 9 carbon atoms
Serve as the monomeric blocks for noninformational
biopolymers with molecular weights ranging into millions
D (+) Glucose
optical isomer which rotates polarized light in the + direction
like other simple sugars, is a polyhydroxyalcohol derivative
most common monosaccharide

 In solution D-glucose is
present largely as a ring
structure, pyranose.

The five membered sugars Dribose and deoxyribose are

major components of the nucleic
acid monomers DNA and RNA
and other biochemical.

Disaccharides to Polysaccharides
The OH attached to position 1 is relatively reactive.
This hydroxyl group can condense with an OH on the carbon 4
of another sugar
To eliminate a water molecule
To form an -1,4-glycosidic bond

 Disaccharide
Condensation product of two monosaccharide
Sucrose
Table sugar
Major foodstuff which is found in all
photosynthetic plants
Easiest to hydrolyze: the resulting
mixture of glucose and fructose
monosaccharide is called invert sugar

 Lactose
Found only in milk, relatively rare
but important disaccharide
Since many people are lactoseintolerant and therefore cannot
digest milk, enzyme processes to
hydrolyze milk lactose are currently
under development

 Amylose
A straight-chain polymer of glucose subunits whose
molecular weight may vary from several thousand to half
million
Constitutes about 20 percent of starch, the reserve food in
plants

 Amylopectin
bulk of starch
also a D-glucose
polymer, is
distinguished by a
substantial amount of
branching.
branches occur from
the ends of amylose
segments averaging 25
glucose units in length.

 Amylopectin
typically larger than amylose, with molecular weights
ranging up to 1 to 2 million.
Soluble in water, and it can form gels by absorbing water
Dextrins
Branched remnants of amylopectin remained after partial
hydrolysis of starch by acid or certain enzymes .
are used as thickeners and in pastes.

 Glycogen
A polymer which resembles amylopectin in that is highly
branched
the degree of branching is greater as there are typically only
12 glucose units in the straight-chain segments between
branches.
Molecular weights of 5 million and greater
Also serves as an energy reserve material for some
microorganism including enteric bacteria.

 Cellulose
Major structural component of all plant cell walls from algae
to trees
Most abundant organic compound on earth
Cotton and wood are examples of materials rich in cellulose
Amount of cellulose produced 1011 tons/year
Each molecule is long, unbranched chain of D-glucose
subunits with molecular weight ranging from 50,000 to over
1 million.

 -1,4-glycosidic bonds, which are found in starch or

glycogen, can be hydrolyzed by enzymes possessed by large
variety of organisms
While, -1,4-glycosidic bonds of cellulose can only be
hydrolyze by few living creatures, including the bacteria living in
the rumen of cows and intestines of termite.

Thank you!