2.1.2.

Volume flow, mass flow and the continuity equation

mass kg

3
volume m

(2.1)

and

mass flow
M kg s

volume flow Q s m3
giving

M Q

kg / s

. (2.2)

M Q cons tan t

kg / s

m 2
m3
Q uA
m or
s
s

. (2.3)

. (2.4)

Then the continuity equation becomes

M uA cons tan t kg / s .. (2.5)

Q uA cons tan t m / s
3

.. (2.6)

2.2. FLUID PRESSURE

2.2.1. The cause of fluid pressure

force N
p
area m 2

.. (2.7)

2.2.2. Pressure head

volume hA m3
Then from the definition of density (mass/volume), the mass of liquid is

mass volume x density

hA kg

The weight of the liquid will exert a force, F, on the base of the tube equal to
mass x gravitational acceleration (g):

F hA g N
However, as pressure = force/area, the pressure on the base of the tube is

F
N
P gh
or Pa
2
A
m

(2.8)

2.2.3. Atmospheric pressure and gauge pressure

One standard atmosphere

x g xh
13.5951 x 103 x 9.8066 x 0.760
101.324 x 103 Pa

or

101.324 kPa

Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure (2.9)

2.2.4. Measurement of air pressure

The atmospheric pressure could then be calculated as (see equation (2.8))

p gh Pa
Where, in this case,

is the density of mercury.

p 1 gh1 2 gh2

Pa

or

1
h2
h1 m
2

. (2.10)

2.3. FLUIDS IN MOTION

2.3.1. Bernoullis equation for ideal fluids
Kinetic energy
If we commence with the mass, m, at rest and accelerate it to velocity u in t
seconds by applying a constant force F, then the acceleration will be uniform and
the mean velocity is

Then

0u u

m/s
2
2
Distance travelled = mean velocity x time

u
tm
2

Furthermore, the acceleration is defined as

increase in velocity u
m / s2
time
t
The force is given by

F mass acceleration
u
m
N
t
and the work done to accelerate from rest to velocity u is
WD = force x distance

Nm

u u
m t
t 2
u2
m
N m or J
2

.. (2.11)

The kinetic energy of the mass m is, therefore mu 2/2 joules

Potential energy
F mass acceleration
mg N

where g is the gravitational acceleration. In moving upward to the final

elevation of Z metres above the datum, the work done is
WD force dis tan ce
mgZ J

... (2.12)

This gives the potential energy of the mass at elevation Z

Flow work
work done force dis tan ce
PAs J

However, the product As is the swept volume v, giving

WD Pv
Now, by definition, the density is

m kg
v m3

or

Hence, the work done in moving the plug of fluid into the pipe is
WD

Pm
J

... (2.13)

or P / joules per ki log ram

Total mechanical = kinetic + potential + flow

energy
energy energy
work

mu 2
P

mZg m
J
2

u2
P
m
Zg cons tan t

.. (2.14)

.. (2.15)

Another way of expressing this equation is to consider two stations, 1 and

2 along the pipe, duct or airway. Then

u12
u22
P2
P1
m
Z1g m
Z2g
1
2

Now as we are still considering the fluid to be incompressible,

1 2 ( say )
giving

u12 u22
P1 P2
J
( Z1 Z 2 ) g
0
2

kg

.. (2.16)

2.3.2. Static, total and velocity pressure

P2 P1 u12

u12
pv P2 P1
Pa
2

.. (2.17)

pv pt ps
or

pt ps pv

Pa

p ( 1 d ) gh Pa

.. (2.18)

.. (2.19)

p ( 1 d ) gh ( d a ) gh2 Pa

.. (2.20)

2.3.3. Viscosity

F N

A m2

F
du

A
dy

N
m2

...... (2.21)

...... (2.22)

 air (17.0 0.045t ) 106

Ns
m2

And for water,

water

64.72

0.2455 103
t 31.766

Ns
m2

where t = temperature (oC) in the range 0-60 oC

The units of viscosity are derived by transposing equation (2.22):

Ns
dy N
s

m or 2
2
du m
m m

A term which commonly occurs in fluid mechanics is the ratio of dynamic

viscosity to fluid density. This is called the kinematic viscosity, v (Greek nu)

N s m3
s
or
N
m
m 2 kg
kg

As 1 N = 1 kg x 1 (m/s2), these units become

m m s m2
kg 2

s kg
s
u12
P1 u22
P
Z1g Z 2 g 2 F12
2
2

J
kg

.. (2.23)

2.3.4. Laminar and turbulent flow; Reynolds number

inertial force
u 2 1 dy

viscous force
2 du

u 2

.. (2.24)

1 L
u

or

uL
Re

Re

ud

.. (2.25)

Example A ventilation shaft of diameter 5 m passes an airflow of 200 m 3/s

at a mean density of 1.2 kg/m3 and a mean temperature of 18oC. Determine
the Reynolds number for the shaft.
Solution For air at 18oC
(17.0 0.045 18) 106
17.81106 N s / m 2

Air velocity
u

Q
200
2
A 5 / 4
10.186 m / s

ud

1.2 10.186 5
6

3.432

10
17.8110 6
This Reynolds number indicates that the flow will be turbulent.
Re

2.3.5. Frictional losses in laminar flow; Poiseuilles equation

2 rtL r 2 p
However , du / dr (equation (2.22) with a negative du), giving

du r p

dr 2 L

or
du

p r
dr
L 2

m/s

p 1 r2
u
C
L 2 2

.. (2.26)

.. (2.27)

p R2
C
L 4

1 p 2 2
u
(R r ) m / s
4 L

.. (2.28)

1 p 2 m
R
4 L
s

.. (2.29)

umax

um Q / A

m/s

.. (2.30)

dQ u 2 r dr
Substituting for u from equation (2.28) gives

2 p 2 2
dQ
( R r )r dr
4 L
2 p R 2
3
Q
(
R
r

r
)dr

4 L 0
Integrating gives

R4 p 3
Q
m /s
8 L

.. (2.31)

8 L
p
Q
4
R
or

p RL Q

Pa

where

8 L
5
RL
N
s
/
m
4
R

.. (2.32)

 R4 p 1
um
8 L R 2
R2 p

m/s
8 L

.. (2.33)

or

8 um
p
L
2
R

Pa

.. (2.34)

u12 u22
P1 P2
( Z1 Z 2 ) g
F12
2

P1 P2
J
F12

kg

J
kg

..... (2.35)

8 um
J
F12
L
2
R
kg

..... (2.36)

u12 u22
P1 P2 8 um
( Z1 Z 2 ) g

R2

J
kg

. (2.37)

2.3.6. Frictional losses in turbulent flow

uc

A h
per L

A h
m/s
per L

.. (2.38)

 per L

per L Ap

.. (2.39)

(A similar equation was used in section 2.3.5 for a circular pipe.) However,

p gh Pa
(equation (2.8) ) giving

A
h N

g
per
L m2

.. (2.40)

u J
Nm
N

3 or 2
3
2 m
m
m
or

u2 N
f
2 m2

.. (2.41)

u
A h
f

g
2
per L
or

2g
u
f

A h
m/s
per L

.. (2.42)

2g
m1/ 2 / s
f

...... (2.43)

2
2
g

d
1 h
2
u
f 4 d L

or

4 fLu 2
h
metres of fluid
2 gd

..... (2.44)

4 fL pu 2
p
Pa
d 2

...... (2.45)

or a frictional work term

p 4 fL u 2 J
F12

d 2 kg

.......... (2.46)

The Bernoulli equation for frictional and turbulent flow becomes

u12 u22
P1 P2 4 fL u 2 J
( Z1 Z 2 ) g

d 2 kg

..... (2.47)

A
rh
m
per

.......... (2.48)

d
d

4 d 4
2

per u
p fL

Pa
A
2

........ (2.49)

fL per
p
Q Pa
3
2 A
or

p Rt Q

Pa

........ (2.50)

where

fL per 4
Rt
m
3
2 A

.......... (2.51)

Combining equation (2.34) and (2.45) gives

8 uL 4 fL u 2
p

Pa
2
R
d 2
Substituting R = d/2 gives

f 16
ud
or

16
f
dim ensionless .......... (2.52)
Re

Smooth pipe turbulent curve

1
4 log10 (Re
f

0.0791
Re0.25

f ) 0.4

.......... (2.53)

.............................. (2.54)

1
f
4[2 log10 ( d / e) 1.14]2

.................................. (2.55)

 e
1
18.7
1.74 2 log10 2

d
4f
Re
4
f

.................................. (2.56)

and

e / d 1.255
1
4 log10

3.7
f
Re f

e / d
f 4 log10

3.7

.................................... (2.57)

..................................... (2.58)