Chapter 5:

Consumer Motivation

Ten Key Concepts

Concept of Motivation
Consumer needs
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Vicarious learning

Opponent-process

theory
Optimum-stimulation
level theory
Reactance theory
Perceived risk
Attribution theory

What is Motivation?
Motivation refers to an activated state within a
person that leads to goal-directed behavior.
Understanding consumers motivation not only
what they do, buy WHY they do it.

It consists of the drives, urges, wishes, or desires

that initiate the sequence of events leading to a
behavior.

Motivation
An inner state of arousal w/ energy directed at
achieving a goal

Drive to satisfy physiological and psychological

needs through consumption

Examples
Becks and Heineken are consumed by confident,
upscale, professional men.

Heineken consumption is driven by a desire for status,

whereas Becks is associated with a desire for
individuality.

Both Classico and Newmans Own spaghetti

sauces are consumed by upscale, sophisticated

adults.

Classico buyers are motivated by indulgence and

romance and Newmans Own buyers are showing

ambition and individuality.

Latent and Manifest Motives in a

Purchase Situation

Motivation begins with the presence of a

stimulus that spurs the recognition of a need.

Internal sources (e.g., hunger, thirsty, etc.)

External sources (e.g., ad message, friends
comments)

Need recognition occurs when a perceived

discrepancy exists between an actual and a

desired state of being

Needs can be either innate or learned.

Needs are never fully satisfied.
Feelings and emotions (I.e., affect) accompany
needs

 Expressive needs involve desires by

consumers to fulfill social, ego, and/or

aesthetic requirements. -- Experiential or
Emotional

Utilitarian needs involve desires by

consumers to solve basic problems (e.g.

filling a cars gas tank) -- Functional

The Structure of Emotions

Emotion and Mood
Mood: a transient feeling state that occurs in a

specific situation.
Emotion: have greater intensity and psychological
urgency.

Ten Fundamental Emotions People Experience:

Interest
Disgust
Surprise
Joy
Anger
Sadness
Contempt
Fear
Guilt
Shame

Classification of Emotions
Positive High arousal
joy
delight
elation

Negative-high arousal
anger
disgust
contempt

Positive Low arousal

contented
serene
tranquil

Negative-low arousal
shame
guilt
depressed

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

 Physiological, security, social, and esteem needs

are deficiency needs (also known as D-needs),

meaning that these needs arise due to
deprivation. Satisfying these lower-level needs is
important in order to avoid unpleasant feelings or
consequences.

Maslow termed the highest-level of the pyramid

as growth need (also known as being needs or

B-needs). Growth needs do not stem from a lack
of something, but rather from a desire to grow as
a person.

Marketing Strategies and Maslows

Hierarchy

Three Learning Theories

Classical Conditioning Theory

Operant Conditioning Theory

Vicarious Learning Theory

Classical Conditioning
Pavlovs

Contribution

John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in

Classical

Conditioning: learning
that occurs when a
neutral stimulus (NS)
becomes paired
(associated) with an
unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) to
elicit a conditioned
response (CR)

Classical Conditioning Theory

The specific model for classical conditioning
is:
A stimulus will naturally (without learning)
elicit or bring about a reflexive response
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) elicits >
Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Why Study Psychology? It Helps You

Understand Popular Cartoons!

John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

Applications of
Classical Conditioning
Conditioning of affect

We nominate Pavlov as the father of modern

advertising. Pavlov took a neutral object and, by

associating it with a meaningful object, made it a
symbol of something else; he imbued it with
Imagery, he gave it added value. That is what
we try to do in modern advertising.
Joel S. Dubow, communications research
manager at Coca-Cola.

22

Classical Conditioning
A neutral stimulus,

such as a brand
name, is paired with
a stimulus that elicits
a response.
Through a repetition
of the pairing, the
neutral stimulus
takes on the ability to
elicit the response.

A Classical Marketing Example

Unconditioned Stimulus
Popular music

Unconditioned Response
Emotions

Pairing

Product (Pen)
Conditioned Stimulus

Emotions
Conditioned Response

Follow-up Study

Follow-up study for pen and music

Choice between two pen ads:
Pen A: pleasant music playing in

background; no features described

Pen B:

lots of positive features listed

(writes smoothly; elegant looking;
durable etc.); No music in
background.

 Students were either given the following

sequence:
Sequence 1: First told they would get their
chosen pen then exposure to the pens
above then made choice

Sequence 2: exposure to the pens; and

then make choice (so not told ahead of

time that they would have to make choice)

Results??

(Pen A music vs. B feature

preference in the two sequences?)

Follow-up Study Results

Pen B (feature) chosen more in Sequence

1

Pen A (music) chosen more in Sequence 2

WHY??

Role of involvement/interest
When subjects told ahead of time about pen choice
they are more interested/involved with the
decision

So more likely to actually focus on the products

attributes

If not told ahead of time, they are not so involved,

so dont think too much

More likely to be influenced by pleasant music

association

This is true in general

High involvement (looking at a car ad when

you are in the market): more thoughts
consumers evaluate ad and product
carefully

what the ad says about the products

attributes

non-product material such as

music/endorser (peripheral cues) less

important

 Low involvement (just looking at a random

car ad): less thought
consumers do not evaluate ad carefully
what the ad says about attributes not so
important
peripheral cues (e.g., music/endorser)
quite important

So persuasion tactics have to be different

for low vs. high involvement situations
advertisements use both types

Requirements for Effective

Conditioning
The product is paired consistently with the
unconditioned stimulus.

Both the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned

stimulus are highly salient to the consumer.

Examples?

Applications of Classical
Conditioning

Applications:

communications--advertising, public
relations, personal selling.
Goal: identify powerful positive stimulus and
associate brand with it.
Examples of powerful, emotion causing stimuli:

beautiful, sexy people

patriotic themes, religious symbols
Music, beautiful scenes
Christmas music played in stores may elicit

emotional responses associated with giving and

sharing
Also, negative stimuli can be associated with
competitors.

Classical Conditionings Basic

Principles
ALL

Snakes
bite!

Stimulus

Generalization:
learned response to
stimuli that are
similar to the
original conditioned
stimuli (CS)

Stimulus Generalization
Family brand name in brand extension
Me-too products
Similar ads

Classical Conditionings Basic

Principles (Continued)
Now I know that
some snakes are
nice!

Stimulus

Discrimination:
learned response
to a specific
stimulus, but not
to other, similar
stimuli

Reward

Punishment

Operant Conditioning
(B.F. Skinner)
. . . is the process in which the frequency of
occurrence of a bit of behavior is modified by the
consequences of the behavior.

If reinforced, the likelihood of the behavior being

repeated increases. E.g., the product performs well or

friends compliment the fine purchase.

If punished, the likelihood of the behavior being repeated

decreases. E.g., the product fails or friends ridicule the
purchase, irritating actions by a salesperson, or stock
outages of a product.

Operant Conditioning

Stimulus
(Rice Popcorn)

Desired response
(consumption)

Increases probability
Of response to stimulus

Reinforcement
(pleasant taste)

Reinforcement & Influencing

Behavior
A reinforcer is anything that occurs after a

behavior and changes the likelihood that it will be

emitted again.

Positive reinforcers are positive rewards that follow

immediately after a behavior occurs. E.g., Rebate,
thank-you note.

Negative reinforcers are the removal of an aversive

stimulus. E.g., car insurance, fear appeal

Operant Conditionings Basic

Principles

Reinforcement:

strengthening a
response

Examples of Negative
Reinforcement

Here are two examples of Negative

Reinforcement:

1.

A rat is placed in a cage and

immediately receives a mild electrical shock
on its feet. The shock is a negative condition
for the rat. The rat presses a bar and the
shock stops. The rat receives another shock,
presses the bar again, and again the shock
stops. The rat's behavior of pressing the bar
is strengthened by the consequence of the
stopping of the shock.

Another Example of Negative

Reinforcement

Driving in heavy traffic is a negative

condition for most of us. You leave home
earlier than usual one morning, and don't
run into heavy traffic. You leave home earlier
again the next morning and again you avoid
heavy traffic. Your behavior of leaving home
earlier is strengthened by the consequence
of the avoidance of heavy traffic.

Fear appeal

Using Operant Conditioning

Extinction & Eliminating

Behaviors
Once an operant

response is
conditioned, it will
persist as long as it
is periodically
reinforced.

Extinction is the

disappearance of a
response due to lack
of reinforcement.

Schedules of Reinforcement . . .
. . . determine if a behavior is reinforced
after a certain number of repetitions or after
a certain length of time has passed.
Example. Slot machines use a variable
schedule based upon number of pulls of
handle.

Shaping Consumer
Responses . . .
. . . is creating totally
new operant
behaviors by
selectively reinforcing
behaviors that
successively
approximate the
desired instrumental
response. E.g.,
animal training

The Process of Shaping in

Purchase Behavior
Consume a free
Sample of Rice
Popcorn that was
Sent to your home

Purchase a second
Package using the
Discount coupon
That accompanied
The free sample

Repurchase the
Product at full
price

Free coffee and doughnuts to anyone

who comes into the dealership

Giving $5 to who test drives a car

Giving $500 rebate to the person

for buying the car

Providing excellent after sale services

Repeat buying from the dealership

An Advertisement Designed to Induce

Trial

Vicarious Learning
(Observational Learning)

. . . is the
phenomenon where
people observe the
actions of others to
develop patterns of
behavior.

Three important ideas:

People are viewed as symbolic beings who

foresee the probable consequences of their

behavior.
People learn by watching the actions of
others and the consequences of these
actions (i.e. vicarious learning).
People have the ability to regulate their own
behavior.

Factors Increasing a Models

Effectiveness
The model is physically attractive.
The model is credible.
The model is successful.
The model is similar to the observer.
The model is shown overcoming difficulties
and then succeeding.

Dove Self-Esteem Campaign

Midrange Theories of Motivation

Opponent-Process Theory
Optimum Stimulation Levels
Reactance theory (The Desire

to Maintain Behavioral
Freedom)
Perceived risk
Attribution theory (The
Motivation to Attribute
Causality)

Physiologically
based

Cognitively
based

Opponent-Process Theory
It asserts that emotions are paired, and that
when one emotion in a pair is experienced,
the other is suppressed.
explains that two things occur when a person
receives a stimulus that elicits an immediate
positive or negative emotional reaction:

Opponent Process Theory

The immediate positive or negative emotional
reaction is felt.

A second emotional reaction occurs that has a

feeling opposite to that initially experienced.

The combination of the two emotional reactions

results in the overall feeling experienced by the
consumer.

Opponent-Process Theory
Examples:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Skydiving
Fear, elation
Jogging and Marathoning, sauna bathing
Drug addiction Pleasure and Anxiety
Credit card

Priming occurs when a small amount of exposure

to a stimulus leads to an increased drive to
be in the presence of the stimulus.
1. Food (e.g., Crispy-Crme donuts)
2. Video Game

Optimum Stimulation Level

. . . is a persons preferred amount of physiological
activation or arousal.

Activation may vary from very low levels (e.g. sleep) to

very high levels (e.g. severe panic).

Individuals are motivated to maintain an optimum level

of stimulation and will take action to correct the level
when it becomes too high or too low.

 Accounts for high vs. low sensation seeking

people.

Accounts for variety seeking

Accounts for hedonic consumptionI.e., the
need of people to create fantasies, gain
feelings through the senses, and obtain
emotional arousal.

E.g., sports, theme parks, hunting, horror

movies

Reactance Theory
Psychological reactance is the motivational

state resulting from the response to threats to

behavioral freedom (Brehm).

Two types of threats can lead to reactance:

Social threats involve external pressure from other

people to induce a consumer to do something

Impersonal threats are barriers that restrict the ability

to buy a particular product or service

Reactance Theory in Marketing

Frequent in marketing:

e.g., pushy

salesperson

Scarcity effects:

scarce products are

valued more. Limited time offer, limited
supply.

Marketing Examples
Mazis, Settle and Leslie (1973) applied reactance theory

in a field study investigating the effects of a ban on

phosphate detergents in Miami. They found that Miami
residents evaluated phosphate detergents more favorably
than residents of Tampa where phosphate detergents
were still available.

Lessne (1987) found that an advertisement for a One Day

Only sale results in greater purchase likelihood than
advertisements for a Three Day Only sale, a Five Day
Only sale and a sale of an unstated duration.

Pop-up ads.

Perceived Risk
Defined as a consumers perception of the
overall negativity of a course of action
based on an assessment of the possible
negative outcomes and of the likelihood
that those outcomes will occur.

Types of Risks
Financial
Performance: perform as expected
Physical: car safety, toys
Psychological: self-image
Social: dandruff, bad breath, deodorant
Time
Opportunity cost

The Motivation to Attribute

Causality
Attribution theory describes the processes through
which people make determinations of the causality of
action.
Internal attribution is when a consumer decides that
an endorser recommended the product because he
or she actually liked the product.

External attribution is when a consumer decides that

an endorser recommended the product because he
or she was paid for endorsing it.

Kelleys Model of Attribution

theory

Consensus information - do all or only a

few people respond to the stimulus in the

same way as the target person?
Distinctiveness information - does the
target person respond in the same way to
other stimuli as well?
Consistency information - does the target
person always respond in the same way to
this stimulus?

Example
High consensus, high distinctiveness, high

consistency: The target person's judgment of

the restaurant (it is a good restaurant) should be
perceived as valid if the perceiver knows that
Consensus: 1) other people like the restaurant,
Distinctiveness: 2) the target person seldom likes
restaurants
Consistency: 3) the target person enjoys the
restaurant every time he or she goes there. The
restaurant is good.

There has to be a link

between product and
celebrity

Cybill Shepherd was

endorsing beef industry
when said she did not
eat red meat.

Applications of attribution theory

endorsers:

seek to get consumers to perceive

internal motives for making endorsement.

satisfaction:

seek to get consumers to perceive

external reasons for product problem.

sales promotion:

find ways to avoid consumers

attributing the cause of the purchase to the sale
rather than to the excellence of the product.