Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
EQUATIONS
A guide for A level students
KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING
2008
SPECIFICATIONS
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
INTRODUCTION
This Powerpoint show is one of several produced to help students understand
selected topics at AS and A2 level Chemistry. It is based on the requirements of
the AQA and OCR specifications but is suitable for other examination boards.
Individual students may use the material at home for revision purposes or it may
be used for classroom teaching if an interactive white board is available.
Accompanying notes on this, and the full range of AS and A2 topics, are available
from the KNOCKHARDY SCIENCE WEBSITE at...
www.knockhardy.org.uk/sci.htm
Navigation is achieved by...
either
or
USEFUL DEFINITIONS
Element
A substance which cannot be split into anything simpler by chemical means.
Atom
The smallest part of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction.
Molecule
The smallest particle of a compound (a combination of two or more elements).
It is also the name given to the smallest part of those elements which do not exist
as atoms in the free state i.e.
hydrogen
nitrogen
chlorine
iodine
H2
N2
Cl2
I2
oxygen
fluorine
bromine
O2
F2
Br2
USEFUL DEFINITIONS
Ion
The name given to any electrically charged atom or molecule.
positively charged ions are known as cations
negatively charged ions are known as anions
Like charges repel but unlike (opposite) charges attract. If the sum of all the
positive charges is equal and opposite to all the negative charges then the species
will be neutral (no overall charge).
Symbol
A symbol represents one atom, or one mole, of an element.
USEFUL DEFINITIONS
Formula
A formula represents one molecule of a compound, or the simplest ratio of the
ions present. As with symbols, a formula represents a single particle or one mole
of particles.
The number of atoms or groups of atoms in a formula is given by putting a small
number just below and behind the symbol(s). As the appearance of a symbol
indicates one atom is present, a 1 isnt written (you put NaBr not Na1Br1).
In some formulae brackets are used to avoid ambiguity. Aluminium sulphate has
the formula Al2(SO4)3 to show that there are two Als to every three SO4s. Without
the brackets it would appear as though there were forty three Os i.e. Al2SO43.
USEFUL DEFINITIONS
Valency
A numerical measure of the combining power of an atom / ion.
Historically, it was the number of hydrogen atoms which will combine with one
atom, or group of atoms.
Atom
C
N
O
Cl
Valency
4
3
2
1
Compound
CH4
NH3
H2O
HCl
CONSTRUCTION OF FORMULAE
Methods
Several methods are available, choose the one which suits you, or the situation,
best. Magnesium chloride is used as an example.
1.
magnesium ion
chloride ion
Mg2+
Cl
Cl
Mg2+
Cl
CONSTRUCTION OF FORMULAE
Methods
Several methods are available, choose the one which suits you, or the situation,
best. Magnesium chloride is used as an example.
2.
Use hooks. The valency is the number of hooks an element or group has.
All hooks must be joined up so there are no spares.
Magnesium has two hooks, Mg , chlorine has one, Cl . Join up all
hooks; this gives you Cl Mg Cl . The formula is thus MgCl2.
CONSTRUCTION OF FORMULAE
Methods
Several methods are available, choose the one which suits you, or the situation,
best. Magnesium chloride is used as an example.
3.
Switching the valency numbers if two valencies are different. Dont write in a
1 and cancel any combination of numbers which can be reduced (e.g. Mg2O2
will become MgO).
the valency of magnesium is two, so multiply chlorine by two
the valency of chlorine is one, so multiply magnesium by one to give Mg1Cl2
the formula will be MgCl2.
CONSTRUCTION OF FORMULAE
Methods
Several methods are available, choose the one which suits you, or the situation,
best. Magnesium chloride is used as an example.
3.
Switching the valency numbers if two valencies are different. Dont write in a
1 and cancel any combination of numbers which can be reduced (e.g. Mg2O2
will become MgO).
the valency of magnesium is two, so multiply chlorine by two
the valency of chlorine is one, so multiply magnesium by one to give Mg1Cl2
the formula will be MgCl2.
example: aluminium sulphate
the valency of aluminium is 3 and that of sulphate is 2
they will combine in the ratio of 2 aluminiums to 3 sulphates [i.e. 2x3 = 3x2]
the formula will be Al2(SO4)3. [Notice the use of brackets]
CONSTRUCTION OF FORMULAE
It is useful to learn some formulae...
Acids
hydrochloric acid
sulphuric acid
HCl
H2SO4
Gases
ammonia
NH3
carbon monoxide CO
sulphur dioxide
SO2
nitric acid
ethanoic acid
HNO3
CH3COOH
carbon dioxide
methane
CO2
CH4
BALANCING EQUATIONS
Equations show the formulae of the reactants and the products.
show the relationship between the numbers of each substance
involved; this is known as the STOICHIOMETRY
can show in which state the substances exist.
BALANCING EQUATIONS
1 Work out what has reacted and what has been formed. Word equations help.
2
Get the correct formula for each species. Include the state symbols if
necessary. Once you have obtained the correct formula of a species you must
not change it to help balance an equation.
Place large numbers in front of any formula to indicate if more than one of it is
required. This multiplies everything in the formula immediately behind it.
Finally, check the equation to see that you have balanced it correctly.
sodium
water
>
sodium hydroxide
hydrogen
sodium
Step 2
Na(s)
+
+
water
H2O(l)
>
>
sodium hydroxide
NaOH(aq)
+
+
hydrogen
H2(g)
sodium
Step 2
Na(s)
Step 3
water
H2O(l)
>
>
sodium hydroxide
NaOH(aq)
+
+
hydrogen
H2(g)
sodium
Step 2
Na(s)
Step 3
water
H2O(l)
>
>
sodium hydroxide
NaOH(aq)
hydrogen
H2(g)
The equation doesnt balance; an extra H is needed on the LHS. However the formula
must not change. One can only get extra Hs by having two waters; multiply H 2O by two.
Step 4
Na(s)
2 H2O(l)
>
NaOH(aq)
H2(g)
sodium
Step 2
Na(s)
Step 3
water
H2O(l)
>
>
sodium hydroxide
NaOH(aq)
hydrogen
H2(g)
The equation doesnt balance; an extra H is needed on the LHS. However the formula
must not change. One can only get extra Hs by having two waters; multiply H 2O by two.
Step 4
Na(s)
2 H2O(l)
>
NaOH(aq)
H2(g)
This doesnt solve the problem as we now have too many Os (2) and Hs (4) on the
LHS; multiplying the NaOH by two will solve this problem.
Na(s)
2 H2O(l)
>
2 NaOH(aq)
H2(g)
sodium
Step 2
Na(s)
Step 3
water
H2O(l)
>
>
sodium hydroxide
NaOH(aq)
hydrogen
H2(g)
The equation doesnt balance; an extra H is needed on the LHS. However the formula
must not change. One can only get extra Hs by having two waters; multiply H 2O by two.
Step 4
Na(s)
2 H2O(l)
>
NaOH(aq)
H2(g)
This doesnt solve the problem as we now have too many Os (2) and Hs (4) on the
LHS; multiplying the NaOH by two will solve this problem.
Na(s)
2 H2O(l)
>
2 NaOH(aq)
H2(g)
2 H2O(l)
>
2 NaOH(aq)
H2(g)
sodium
Step 2
Na(s)
Step 3
water
H2O(l)
>
>
sodium hydroxide
NaOH(aq)
hydrogen
H2(g)
The equation doesnt balance; an extra H is needed on the LHS. However the formula
must not change. One can only get extra Hs by having two waters; multiply H 2O by two.
Step 4
Na(s)
2 H2O(l)
>
NaOH(aq)
H2(g)
This doesnt solve the problem as we now have too many Os (2) and Hs (4) on the
LHS; multiplying the NaOH by two will solve this problem.
Na(s)
2 H2O(l)
>
2 NaOH(aq)
H2(g)
2 H2O(l)
>
2 NaOH(aq)
H2(g)
Check the equation; it balances. As you can see it can take time but with a little
effort a balanced equation can be achieved.
TABLE OF IONS
calcium
barium
magnesium
zinc
iron(II)
cobalt
manganese(II)
Ca2+
Ba2+
Mg2+
Zn2+
Fe2+
Co2+
Mn2+
sulphate
sulphite
sulphide
oxide
carbonate
copper(II)
SO42SO32S2O2CO32Cu2+
aluminium
iron(III)
Al3+
Fe3+
phosphate
PO43-
NaCl
b) magnesium sulphate
MgSO4
c) calcium oxide
CaO
d) calcium chloride
CaCl2
e) copper(II) nitrate
Cu(NO3)2
f) potassium sulphate
K2SO4
g) manganese(IV) oxide
MnO2
h) zinc carbonate
ZnCO3
i) aluminium oxide
Al2O3
j) aluminium sulphate
Al2(SO4)3
k) aluminium bromide
AlBr3
l) calcium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2
NaCl
b) magnesium sulphate
MgSO4
c) calcium oxide
CaO
d) calcium chloride
CaCl2
e) copper(II) nitrate
Cu(NO3)2
f) potassium sulphate
K2SO4
g) manganese(IV) oxide
MnO2
h) zinc carbonate
ZnCO3
i) aluminium oxide
Al2O3
j) aluminium sulphate
Al2(SO4)3
k) aluminium bromide
AlBr3
l) calcium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2
hydrogen + oxygen
H2
O2
> water
H 2O
b)
c)
d)
e)
>
hydrogen + oxygen
H2
O2
> water
H 2O
b)
c)
d)
e)
>
H= 2
O= 1
b) H2SO4
H= 2
O= 4
S = 1
c) (NH4)2SO4
H= 8
N= 2
O = 4
S = 1
d) CuSO4.5H2O
H = 10
O= 9
S = 1
Cu = 1
e) 2 NaOH
H= 2
O= 2
Na = 2
f) 3 Ca(OH)2
H= 6
O= 6
Ca = 3
g) 2 Na2HPO4
H= 2
O= 8
Na = 4
h) 2 NH4Al(SO4)2.12H2O
H = 56
N= 2
O = 40 Al = 2
P = 2
S= 4
H= 2
O= 1
b) H2SO4
H= 2
O= 4
S = 1
c) (NH4)2SO4
H= 8
N= 2
O = 4
S = 1
d) CuSO4.5H2O
H = 10
O= 9
S = 1
Cu = 1
e) 2 NaOH
H= 2
O= 2
Na = 2
f) 3 Ca(OH)2
H= 6
O= 6
Ca = 3
g) 2 Na2HPO4
H= 2
O= 8
Na = 4
h) 2 NH4Al(SO4)2.12H2O
H = 56
N= 2
O = 40 Al = 2
P = 2
S= 4
Y/N
Y/N
Y/N
d) NaOH + H2SO4
Y/N
Y/N
Y/N
Y/N
Y/N
d) NaOH + H2SO4
Y/N
Y/N
Mg
HCl
b)
Na
O2
>
c)
Ca(OH)2
HNO3
d)
Ca
H2O
e)
NaNO3
f)
Mg(NO3)2
g)
Cu
h)
Al
O2
>
Al2O3
i)
Fe
Cl2
>
FeCl3
j)
C2H6
k)
Al2O3
l)
Cu
m)
KOH
F2 >
n)
KOH
Cl2
>
+
+
O2
>
>
NaOH
HNO3
H2
>
>
Ca(NO3)2
Ca(OH)2
+
MgO
H2SO4
>
NaNO2
>
Na2O
>
>
MgCl2
H2O
H2
O2
+
NO2
CuSO4
CO2
H2O
KCl
H2O
H2O
+
F 2O
O2
SO2
>
Cu(NO3)2
KF
NaAl(OH)4
H2O
+
KClO3
NO
H2O
+
H2O
Mg
2 HCl
b)
4 Na
O2
c)
Ca(OH)2
d)
Ca
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
m)
n)
2
NaNO3
2
>
>
2 HNO
>
>
Mg(NO3)2 2 >
4 Cu
2 Al
2 Fe
H2
Ca(NO3)2
Ca(OH)2
NaNO2
2Na2O
>
H2O
MgCl2
MgO
2H O
H2
O2
+
NO2
O2
3 H2SO4 >
2 CuSO4 + SO2 + H2O
+ 3 O2 > 2Al2O3
6
4 3
72 > FeCl
+
Cl
2O2 > 3 CO2 + H2O2
C2H6 +
(The numbers can be halved)
3 Al O
8 NaOH + H3 O
4NaAl(OH) 2
+
>
2 3
2
4
2
2
2
Cu
+
HNO3 >
Cu(NO3)2 +
H2O
+
NO
3
5
6
3
KOH
F2 >
KOH
Cl2
>
KF
KCl
F 2O
KClO3
H2O
H2O
Sn2+
Sn4+
Sb3+
lead(IV) scandium(III)
FORMULAE &
EQUATIONS
THE END