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DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

CHAPTER 2

MATERIAL STRUCTURE AND BONDING

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Atomic Structure

DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

An atom is the smallest part of an element that retains

the properties of that element.
Atoms are composed of three primary particles,
protons, neutrons and electrons.
In a neutral atom, there is the same number of
electrons (negative charge) and protons (positive
charge).

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DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

Example: Lithium Atom

Lithium has 3 protons and 3 neutrons inside
the nucleus with 3 electrons orbiting
around the nucleus as shown below.

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DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

Atom
All materials available to us are made of tiny
particles called atoms.
Atom is a small particle consist of proton,
electron and neutron.
Remember!
Atom= Nucleus (protons, neutrons) +
electrons

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DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

Element
An element is a substance consisting of atoms
which all have the same number of protons - i.e.
the same atomic number. Elements are pure
substances (are made from one type of atom
only).
Examples of elements: carbon, aluminum, iron,
copper, gold etc.

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DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

Mixture
Substances that are made from more
than one type of atom combined
physically but not chemically are called
mixtures.

There is no chemical reaction

involved in
mixtures.

In a mixture, the properties of the

combination
are still the properties of its
components.
Mixtures can be separated by physical
means.

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DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

Compound
Compounds are substances consisting of two or more
elements chemically combined in definite proportions by
mass to give a material having a definite set of properties
different from that of any of its constituent elements.
Compounds can only be separated by chemical means.
Examples of compounds: NaCl, MgO, H2O
Example 1: Water
Hydrogen is an element. Oxygen is an
element.
When hydrogen and oxygen bond they make
the compound water (H2O).

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Element Periodic Table (EPT)

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DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

A. Protons and Atomic Number

1. The periodic table was found to be in atomic number order, not atomic mass order
B. The Periodic Law
1. The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic
numbers
2. Elements with similar properties are found at regular intervals within the periodic table
Organization of the Table
1. Groups or Families
a. Vertical columns containing elements with similar chemical properties
2. Periods (series)
a. Horizontal rows of elements
3. Metals and Nonmetals
a. A stair-step line on the table separates the metals from the nonmetals
b. Metalloids (Semimetals) straddle the line and have properties of both metals and nonmetals
4. Lanthanide and Actinide Series (Inner Transition Metals)
a. Metals and man-made metal elements
5. Group 1 Alkali metals (the most reactive metal elements) (except hydrogen (H) also in this
group)
6. Group 2 Alkaline earth metals (very reactive metal elements)
7. Group 17 Halogens (the most reactive nonmetal elements)
8. Group 18 Noble gases (the least reactive elements inert and very stable)

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Atomic Number

DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

This refers to how many protons an atom of that element

has.
No two elements, have the same number of protons.
The atomic number of an element = number of protons in
the nucleus
Number of protons in an atom = number of electrons
For example: element Carbon
Number of protons = 6
Atomic number, Z = 6
Atomic number - indicates the number of protons and
defines the element (atomic number 6 is always carbon,
atomic number 7 is always nitrogen etc.).

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Atomic Mass

DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

Atomic mass - the average mass of an atom of an

element (in amu)
Calculation of the number of particles in an atom of
- number
an
elementof: protons equals the atomic number
- number of neutrons equals the mass number minus
the atomic
number (remember virtually all the mass is from the
neutrons
and protons in the nucleus-each with an amu of 1)
- number of electrons equals the number of protons in
a neutral
atom

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Atomic Mass

DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

Consider the following periodic table information for

carbon, nitrogen and sodium :

Carbon's atomic number is 6, has an average mass of 12.011

amu and carbon's most common isotope has a mass number
of 12 amu. Therefore, the most common type of carbon atom
has 6 protons, 6 neutrons and 6 electrons.
Nitrogen's atomic number is 7, has an average mass of
14.007 amu and nitrogen's most common isotope has a mass
of 14 amu. Therefore the most common type of nitrogen
atom has 7 protons, 7 neutrons and 7 electrons.
Sodium's atomic number is 11, has an average mass of
22.990 amu and nitrogen's most common isotope has a mass
of 23 amu. Therefore the most common type of sodium atom
has 11 protons, 12 neutrons and 11 electrons.

DJJ3213 MATERIAL
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Importance of Element Periodic
Table
The periodic table is important because it is organized
to provide a lot of information about elements:
The table can be used to predict properties of
elements, even those that have not been
discovered.
Columns (groups) and rows (periods) indicate
elements that share similar characteristics.
The table makes trends in element properties
apparent.
The table provides important information used to
balance chemical equations.

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Atomic Bonding

DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

Have you ever wondered why some materials behave

differently from others, for example it is easy to stretch
rubber but it is difficult to stretch metals?
Why metals are good electrical conductors while other
non-metallic materials are poor conductors?
This is all due to the bonding of atoms.

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Atomic Bonding

DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

The bonds are developed between atoms due to

forces of attraction and repulsion which keep
nearby atoms in an equilibrium state.
The equilibrium means to have its electron
configuration similar to that of inert gases.

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Atomic Bonding

DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

If the outermost shell is not complete with 8 electrons,

atoms of most of the elements form bonds with one
another to achieve this stable condition of 8 electrons
at the outermost shell.
This can be achieved:
1) Atoms sharing one or more electrons with other
atoms
2) Atoms gaining one or more electrons with another
atom
3) Atoms losing one or more electrons with another
atom

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Primary Bonds
3 types of primary bonds:
a) Ionic bonding
b) Covalent bonding
c) Metallic bonding

DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

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DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

Ionic Bonding
It is always found in compounds that are composed of
both metallic and nonmetallic elements.
Atoms of a metallic element easily give up their
valence electrons to the nonmetallic atoms.
The attractive bonding forces are coulombic; that is,
positive and negative ions, by virtue of their net
electrical charge, attract one another.

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DJJ3213 MATERIAL
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Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonding is termed nondirectional, that is, the
magnitude of the bond is equal in all directions
around an ion.

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Covalent Bonding

DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

In covalent bonding stable electron

configurations are assumed by the sharing of
electrons between adjacent atoms.
Two atoms that are covalently bonded will each
contribute at least one electron to the bond, and
the shared electrons may be to belong to both
atoms.

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Metallic Bonding

DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

Metallic bonding, the final primary bonding

type, is found in metals and their alloys.
Metallic materials have one, two, or at most,
three valence electrons.
With this model, these
valence electrons are not
bound to any particular atom
in the solid and are more or
less free to drift throughout
the entire metal.
They may be thought of as
belonging to the metal as a
whole, or forming a sea of
electrons or an electron
cloud.

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Metallic Bonding

DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

The remaining nonvalence electrons and

atomic nuclei form what are called ion cores,
which possess a net positive charge equal in
magnitude to the total valence electron
charge per atom.
These free electrons act as a glue to hold
the ion cores together.

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Secondary Bonds

DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

The bond between atoms is formed by weak forces.

These weak forces are weaker than the primary bonds
and are known as Vander Waals forces.
Types of secondary bonds:
a) Hydrogen bonds
b) Dipole bonds

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DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

Hydrogen Bonds
Hydrogen bonding, a special type of secondary
bonding, is found to exist between some molecules
that have hydrogen as one of the constituents.

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Dipole Bonds

DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

Secondary bonding forces arise from atomic or molecular

dipoles. In essence, an electric dipole exists whenever
there is some separation of positive and negative portions
of an atom or molecule.
The bonding results from the coulombic attraction
between the positive end of one dipole and the negative
region of an adjacent one, as indicated in Figure 2.12.

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Crystal Structures

DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

Have you ever wondered how atoms

assemble into solid structures?
How does the density of a material
depend on its structures?
Solid materials can broadly be classified as crystalline
and non crystalline (amorphous) solids.
In crystalline solid the arrangement of atoms is in a
periodically repeating manner whereas no such patterns
are found in a non-crystalline solid.

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Crystal Structures

DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

2 types of crystalline solids:

a) Single crystal : the periodic and repeated
arrangement of atoms is perfect or extends
throughout the entirety of the specimen without
interruption.
b) Polycrystalline solid : a collective aggregate of
many crystals separated by well defined
boundaries.
As a general rule, most metals are crystalline,
while ceramics and polymers may be either
crystalline or non-crystalline.

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DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

Differences between crystalline and

non-crystalline solids

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Crystal Structures

DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

Types of crystal structure:

1) Simple cubic
2) Body centered cubic (BCC)
3) Face centered cubic (FCC)
4) Hexagonal closed packed (HCP)

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Simple Cubic

DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

Number of atom = 1/8 X 8

corner atoms
= 1 atom

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Body Centered Cubic
(BCC)

DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

Number of atoms = 1/8 X 8 corner atoms + 1

center atom
= 2 atoms

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Face Centered Cubic
(FCC)

DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

Number of atoms = 1/8 X 8 corner atoms + 1/2 X 6

face atoms
= 4 atoms

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Hexagonal Close Packed

DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE

Number of atoms = 1/6 X 12 corner atoms + 1/2 X 2 face atoms

+ 3 center atoms
= 6 atoms

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DJJ3213 MATERIAL
SCIENCE
End of chapter 2