3-Ph Synchronous Machine

Time constants from Equivalent Circuits

1. Tdo D axis Open Circuit (arm) transient Time Constant
This time constant indicates the decay of field current with arm
open circuited

Time constant=Inductance/ resistance

Arm terminals
OPEN

xa
Xmd

xf
For Inductance see from this side

OR

3-Ph Synchronous Machine

Time constants from Equivalent Circuits
1. Tdo D axis Open Circuit (arm) transient Time Constant
This time constant indicates the decay of field current with arm
open circuited

xa

xf

Time constant=Inductance/ resistance

Arm terminals
OPEN

Xmd

'

X fo x f X md L f

x f X md
2f

'

Tdo

Lf
rf

Tdo

'

rf

x f X md

2f

2. Td D axis Short Circuit transient Time Constant

This time constant indicates the decay of field current with arm
short circuited

xf

xa

Arm terminals
Shorted

X f

xf

Xmd

'

For Inductance see from this side

X md xa
xf
X md xa

1
Lf
2 f

X md xa
xf

x
md
a

1 1
Td
rf 2 f
'

X md xa
xf

X md xa

1 1
Td
rf 2 f
'

X md xa
xf

x
md
a

xa

Xd

Xmd

1 1 x f X md x f xa X md xa

r f 2 f
X md xa

Xd
1 1 1

x f X md xa ( x f X md )
rf 2 f X d

xf

xa

xf

Xmd

1 1 1 x f X md

xa ( x f X md )

rf 2 f X d ( x f X md )

'

Td Tdo

'

Xd
Xd

'

xa

OPEN

1 1
1
'

X d ( x f X md )
rf 2 f X d

Xmd

xf

Tdo

3. Tdo D axis Open Circuit Subtransient Time

Constant

This time constant indicates the decay of d axis damper

bar current with arm open circuited

Arm terminals
OPEN

xa
Xmd

xkd
xf

Are so rahe ho kya?

For Inductance seeudhar
from this
side
dekho

AAAAAAAA?
Sir,
This is the answer
'

X kdo xkd

Very Easy Subject

Tdo

"

x f X md
x f X md

x f X md
1 1

xkd

rkd 2f
x f X md

4. Td D axis Short Circuit Subtransient Time Constant

This time constant indicates the decay of d axis
damper bar current with arm short circuited

Arm terminals
Shorted
OPEN

xa

X kd

Xmd

'

xkd
xf

Sir, very difficult, three

For Inductance see from this side
branches are in
parallel

xkd
1
1
1
1
1
1 Td "
xkd

1
1
1
r
2

kd
xa X md x f

x
X
x
a
md
f

"

It can be shown that Td Tdo

"

"

Xd
'
Xd

4. Tqo Q axis Open Circuit Subtransient Time

Constant

This time constant indicates the decay of q axis

damper bar current with arm open circuited

Arm terminals
OPEN

xa
Xmq

xkq

Soma
write
For Inductance see
from this side
down
very
easy
"

X kqo xkq X mq
Tqo

"

1 1

xkq X mq
rkq 2f

5. Tq Q axis Short Circuit Subtransient Time

Constant

This time constant indicates the decay of q axis

damper bar current with arm short circuited

Arm
terminals
Arm terminals
Shorted
OPEN

xa
Xmq

xkq

Dont
laugh
For Inductance see from this side
K&K
Write
down
"

X kq xkq

xa X mq
xa X mq

xa X mq
1 1
Tq
xkq

rkq 2f
xa X mq
"

1 1
Tq
rkq 2 f

xa X mq

xa X mq

"

1 1

rkq 2 f

xkq

xa

xkq xa xkq X mq xa X mq

X q

xa X mq

Xmq

xa

1 1 1

xkq X mq xa ( X mq xkq )
'
rkq 2 f X q

xkq

xkq

Xq X
mq

1 1 1 xkq X mq

xa ( X mq xkq )
'
rkq 2 f X q ( X mq xkq )

"

Tq Tqo

"

Xq

"

Xq

'

xa

OPEN

1
1 1
" (X
X
mq xkq )

q
'
rkq 2 f X q

Xmq

xkq
Tqo

6. Ta Armature Time Constant

This time constant indicates the decay of DC component

or Second harmonic component of arm short circuit current.

The flux produced by DC component is stationary

Since the field is rotating, at one instant DC flux

comes along d-axis
and at other instant that comes along q-axis

The reluctance , inductance and reactance

offered are that of Xd and Xq
"
"

Xd Xq
1 1
Ta

ra 2 f
2

If resistances and reactances are given in pu

Then 2f =1 in pu in all above time constants equations.

Ef

Ef

Infinite Bus
V t, f

Synchronous machine connected to Infinite Bus

Xs

Ia ra

jIaXs

If ra =0,

Ef

Ia

Xs
Vt

Single Line Diagram

Ia Z s

Iara
Vt

Ia

Synchronous generator supplies

electrical power at constant volatge Vt,
since it is connected to Infinite Bus

Ef=MdIf, can be varied by varying excitation

Pe=VtIacos, (elect power) can be controlled

by varying mechanical power of PM

Phasor Diagram

For generator

Mechanical power is converted into electrical power

Mechanical power = Equivalent of Mech. Power converted

to Elect. Power Pm

M
SA

+ Constant loss (iron loss + f & w loss)

Power being converted from Mechanical to Electrical form Pm

= Electrical power Pe + Arm copper loss

a) Cylindrical rotor generator

Pe =3VtIacos

=3Vt Ia (dot product)

Pm =VtIacos +Ia2ra

=VtIacos +Ia2Zscos

=Vt Ia +Ia2 Zs

=(Vt +Ia Zs) Ia

=Ef Ia
As Ef=Vt +Ia Zs,

Ia

E f Vt
Zs

=Vt Ia

for single phase

Since Pe=Vt Ia

For Pe, take Vt as a reference

Ia

E f Vt 0
Z s z

Xs
where angle z tan
ra

Ia

Zs

Pe Vt I a
Pe

Vt E f
Zs

Ia Z s

E f z

Ef

jIaXs

Vt

Vt z

Zs

Vt E f z
Zs
2

z Iara

VtVt z
Zs

V
cos( z ) t cos z
Zs

Ia

Since Pe=Vt Ia

For Pe, take Vt as a reference

Ia

Z s z

Xs
where angle z tan
ra

Ia

Zs

Pe Vt I a
Pe

Vt E f
Zs

z 80 to 85 (approx )

E f z

For maximum Pe
z 0

E f Vt 0

For maximum Pe, power angle

= impedance angle

Vt z

Zs

Vt E f z
Zs
2

VtVt z
Zs

V
cos( z ) t cos z
Zs

If resistance is negligible,
then z 900 and Z s X s
Pe

Vt E f
Xs

sin Pem

Electromagnetic Power Pem

Pe
Pe

80 to 85 (ra0)

90 (ra=0)

E f Vt

Ef

Xs

sin

jIaXs
Ia Z s

Iara

Now Pm=Ef Ia

For Pm, take Ef as a reference

E f 0 Vt
Ia
Z s z
Pm

Ef

Zs

cos z

E f Vt
Zs

cos( z )

Vt

Ia

Pe 10, eqivalent to ia 2 ra

For maximum Pm
z 180
180 z
95

80 to 85 (ra0)

If resistance is
negligible,

90 (ra=0)

then z 90 0
and Z s X s

Now Pm=Ef Ia

For P, take Ef as a reference

E f 0 Vt
Ia
Z s z
Pm

Ef

Zs

cos z

E f Vt
Zs

cos( z )

Pm

E f Vt
Xs

sin Pem

Thus if resistance is neglected,

Pm=Pe=Pem Electromagnetic Power

Otherwise Pm= Pe + Ia2ra

b) Salient Pole generator

Ef

X
jI a

Ef

jIqXq

Vt

Vt
Ia

Ia

Pe
Pm

Zs
Ef

cos( z )

Zs

cos z

E f Vt
Zs

z = q

Iara

q tan

Xq
ra

Salient Pole Rotor

Cyl. Rotor
Vt E f

Zq=ra+jXq

I ar a

X
jI a

Ef

Consider similarity
So, Xs=Xq,
jIdXd
Zs=Zq

Vt
cos z
Zs

Pe

cos( z ) Pm

Vt E f
Zq
Ef

'

'2

Zq

Vt
cos( q )
cos q
Zq
'

cos q

E f Vt
Zq

cos( q )

But if resistance is neglected, Pm=Pe Pem for salient

pole rotor

Pe=VtIacos

Active power =Voltage component In phase current

component

Vt

jIqXq
Iacos

Ia

Pe=VtsinxId

+VtcosxIq

Ef

Now obtain Id and Iq

jIdXd

I d X d E f Vt cos

Id

E f Vt cos
Xd

I q X q Vt sin
Vt sin
Iq
Xq

Vtsin
Vtcos

Iq

Vt
Ia

Id

E f Vt cos

Pe=VtsinxId +VtcosxIq

Id
Xd
Vt sin
E f Vt cos

Vt cos
Vt sin

V sin
Xd
X
q

Iq t
Xq
Vt sin E f Vt 2 sin cos
2 cos sin

Vt
Xd
Xd
Xq

Pe

E f Vt
Xd

V
sin t
2

1
1

sin 2 Pm Pem Prel

X

q Xd
Reluctance Power
(Power due to saliency)

Electromagnetic Power Pem+

Electrical Power=

Present, Ef=0

Sin

80 to 85

90

Sin 2

X
q
d

Power-Angle
Characteristics of
Salient Pole Machine

Determine the , for maximum power

2

E
V
dP
d f t
Vt 1
1

sin

sin 2 0

d d X d
2 X q X d

1
cos 2 0
cos Vt

Xd
X
q
d

Now, cos 2 2 cos 2 1

E f Vt

b b 2 4ac
Obtain, cos
, and then
2a
is less than 900.
P
Sin

80 to 85

90

Sin 2

Power-Angle
Characteristics of
Salient Pole Machine

Synchronous Motor

Electrical power is converted into mechanical power

Electrical power P = Equivalent of Elect. Power converted

e

to Mech. Power Pm

M
SA

+ Arm copper loss

Power being converted from Electrical to Mechanical form Pm

= Output power Po or Shaft power Psh

+ Constant loss (iron loss + f & w loss)

a) Cylindrical rotor Motor

Pe =3VtIacos

=3Vt Ia (dot product)

Pm =VtIacos - Ia2ra

=VtIacos - Ia2Zscos

=Vt Ia - Ia2 Zs
=Ef Ia
As Ef=Vt - Ia Zs,

Ia

=(Vt - Ia Zs) Ia

Vt E f
Zs

=Vt Ia

for single phase

Since Pe=Vt Ia

For Pe, take Vt as a reference

Vt 0 E f
Ia
Z s z
Xs
where angle z tan
ra
1

Vt z
Ia

Zs

Ia Z s

E f z

Zs

VtVt z Vt E f z
Pe Vt I a

Zs
Zs
2

Vt

jIaXs

Vt E f
Vt
Pe
cos( z )
cos( z )
Zs
Zs

z Iara

Ef

Ia

Since Pe=Vt Ia

For Pe, take Vt as a reference

Vt 0 E f
Ia
Z s z
Xs
where angle z tan
ra
1

Vt z
Ia

Zs

E f z

For maximum Pe
z 180

180 z
95 to 100 ( approx )
For maximum Pe, power angle
=180 - impedance angle

Zs

VtVt z Vt E f z
Pe Vt I a

Zs
Zs
2
Vt E f
Vt
Pe
cos z
cos( z )
Zs
Zs

If resistance is
negligible,
then z 90 0
and Z s X s
Pe

Vt E f
Xs

sin Pem

Pe
Pe

90 (ra=0)

95 to 100 (ra0)

For Pm, take Ef as a reference

Vt E f 0
Ia
Z s z
Pm

Zs

cos( z )

Vt

Xs

sin

jIaXs
Ia Z s

Iara

Pemax

Now Pm=Ef Ia

E f Vt

E f Vt

Ef

Ef

Zs

cos z

Ia

Pe 10, eqivalent to ia 2 ra

For maximum Pm
z 0
z

z 80 to 85 (approx )

PmMax 80 to 85

90 (ra=0)

95 to 100 (ra0)
PeMax

Now Pm=Ef Ia

For Pm, take Ef as a reference

Vt E f 0
Ia
Z s z
Pm

E f Vt
Zs

cos( z )

If resistance is
negligible,

then z 90 0
and Z s X s
Pm

E f Vt
Xs

sin Pem

Thus if resistance is neglected,

Ef

Zs

cos z

Pm=Pe=Pem Electromagnetic Power

Otherwise Pe= Pm + Ia2ra

b) Salient Pole motor

Vt

Iara V
t

I ar a

jIqXq

jIdXd

Xq
jI a

X
jI a
s

Consider similarity
So, Xs=Xq,
Zs=Zq
Zq=ra+jXq

Ef

Ef

z = q

Ef

Ia

Ia

Vt E f
Vt
Pe
cos z
cos( z )
Zs
Zs
Pm

Zs

cos( z )

Xq
ra

Salient Pole Rotor

Cyl. Rotor

E f Vt

q tan

Ef

Zs

'

Vt
Pe
cos q
cos( q )
Zq
Zq

cos z

Vt E f

'

Pm

E f Vt
Zq

cos( q )

Ef

'2

Zq

cos q

But if resistance is neglected, Pm=Pe Pem for salient

pole rotor

Pe=VtIacos

Active power =Voltage component x In phase current

component

Vt

Vtsin

jIqXq
Iacos

Ia

Pe=-VtsinxId

VtcosxIq

Vt

Now obtain Id and Iq

Vtcos

I d X d Vt cos E f

Id

Ef

Vt cos E f
Xd

I q X q Vt sin
Vt sin
Iq
Xq

jIdXd

Iq

Ia
Id

Vt cos E f

Pe=-VtsinxId +VtcosxIq

Id
Xd
Vt sin
E f Vt cos

Vt cos
Vt sin

V sin
Xd
X
q

Iq t
Xq
Vt sin E f Vt 2 sin cos
2 cos sin

Vt
Xd
Xd
Xq

Pe

E f Vt
Xd

V
sin t
2

1
1

sin 2 Pm Pem Prel

X

q Xd
Reluctance Power
(Power due to saliency)

Electromagnetic Power Pm+

Electrical Power=

X
q
d

Sin

80 to 85

90

Sin 2

Power-Angle
Characteristics of
Salient Pole Machine

Determine the , for maximum power

2

E
V
dP
d f t
Vt 1
1

sin

sin 2 0

d d X d
2 X q X d

1
cos 2 0
cos Vt

Xd
X
q
d

Now, cos 2 2 cos 2 1

E f Vt

b b 2 4ac
Obtain, cos
, and then
2a
is less than 900.
P
Sin

80 to 85

90

Sin 2

Power-Angle
Characteristics of
Salient Pole Machine

Reactive power

Generator Reactive power, Q= Imag Vt I a

jIqXq

Ef

Ef

jIaXs

Vt
Ia

Vt

Ia

Id
Salient pole

OR

=Vtcos x Id
-Vtsin x Iq

Vtsin

Iq

=Voltage x
Quadrature lagging
component of
arm current

jIdXd

Vtcos

Cylindrical rotor

Now, I d

E f Vt cos
Xd

Vt sin
and I q
Xq

Reactive power, Q= Imag Vt I a

jIqXq

Ef

Ef

jIaXs

ste
Du

Vt

Vt
Ia

Ia

Id
Salient pole

OR

=Vtcos x Id
-Vtsin x Iq

Vtsin

Iq

=Voltage x
Quadrature lagging
component of
arm current

jIdXd

Vtcos

Cylindrical rotor

Now, I d

E f Vt cos
Xd

Vt sin
and I q
Xd

 E f Vt cos
Reactive power, Q Vt cos
Xd

E f Vt cos

Xd
E f Vt

Xd

Vt sin

Xq

Vt cos 2 Vt sin 2

Xd
Xq
2

Vt
1
2
sin 2
cos
Vt

Xd
X
q
d

For cyl rotor, Xd=Xq=Xs

E f Vt
Xd

2
Vt
Vt
E f cos Vt

cos
Xd
Xd

For maximum Q, the can be obtained from dQ/d=0

For generator, +ve value indicates that Q flows out of generator.

Vt
E f cos Vt
Q
Xd
This eqn shows that:

Ef

jIaXs
Vt

1. If Ef cos = Vt , Q = 0,

Generator neither delivers nor absorbs Q

Ia
Gen is operating at normal excitation,
and power factor is unity
Ef jIaXs
2. If Ef cos > Vt , Q = +ve,
Ef cos
Generator delivers Q
Vt
Gen is over excited, and pf is Lagging
jIaXs
Ia
Demagnetizing action
Ef
3. If Ef cos < Vt , Q = -ve,

Generator absorbs Q
Gen is under excited, and pf is Leading
Magnetizing action

Ia

Vt
Ef cos

Reactive power

Motor
jIqXq Vtcos
Vt Vtsin jIdXd Vt
Ef

Ef

Ia

OR

=Vtcos x Id
+Vtsin x Iq

Ia

Id
Salient pole

=Voltage x
Quadrature lagging
component of
arm current

jIaXs

Iq

Reactive power, Q= Imag Vt I a

Cylindrical rotor

Now, I d

Vt cos E f
Xd

Vt sin
and I q
Xd

Reactive power

Motor
jIqXq Vtcos
Vt Vtsin jIdXd Vt
ste
Du

Ef

Ef

Ia

OR

=Vtcos x Id
+Vtsin x Iq

Ia

Id
Salient pole

=Voltage x
Quadrature lagging
component of
arm current

jIaXs

Iq

Reactive power, Q= Imag Vt I a

Cylindrical rotor

Now, I d

Vt cos E f

and I q

Xd
Vt sin
Xq

Motor

Vt cos E f
Reactive power, Q Vt cos
Xd

Vt sin

Xq

2
2
Vt cos 2 E f Vt cos Vt sin 2

Xd
Xd
Xq

E f Vt
Xd

Vt
1
2
sin 2
cos
Vt

Xd
X
q
d

For cyl rotor, Xd=Xq=Xs

E f Vt
Xd

Vt
cos
Xd

Vt
Vt E f cos

Xd

For maximum Q, the can be obtained from dQ/d=0

For motor, +ve value indicates that Q flows in to the motor.

Vt
Vt E f cos t
Q
Xd
This eqn shows that:

jIaXs
Vt

1. If Ef cos = Vt , Q = 0,

Motor neither absorbs nor delivers Q

Motor is operating at normal excitation,

Ef

Ia

Ef
and power factor is unity
jI
X
a s
Ef cos
2. If Ef cos > Vt , Q = -ve,
Vt
Motor delivers Q

Motor is over excited,and pf is Leading

jIaXs
V
t
Ia

Demagnetizing action
3. If Ef cos < Vt , Q = +ve,

Motor absorbs Q
Motor is under excited, and pf is Lagging
Magnetizing action

Ef

Ef cos

Ia

Vt
Vt E f cos t
Q
Xd
This eqn shows that:

jIaXs
Vt

1. If Ef cos = Vt , Q = 0,

Motor neither absorbs nor delivers Q

Motor is operating at normal excitation,

Ef

Ia

Ef
and power factor is unity
jI
X
a s
Ef cos
2. If Ef cos > Vt , Q = -ve,
Vt
Motor delivers Q

Motor is over excited, and pf is Leading

jIaXs
V
t
Ia

Demagnetizing action
3. If Ef cos < Vt , Q = +ve,

Motor absorbs Q
Motor is under excited, and pf is Lagging
Magnetizing action

Ef

Ef cos

Ia

In general, the conclusions for Synchronous Machine are:

1. If Ef cos > Vt ,

Vt
E f cos Vt
Q
Xd
This eqn shows that:
GENERATOR

Ef

jIaXs
Vt

1. If Ef cos = Vt , Q = 0,

Generator neither delivers nor absorbs Q

Ia
Gen is operating at normal excitation,
and power factor is unity
Ef jIaXs
2. If Ef cos > Vt , Q = +ve,
Ef cos
Generator delivers Q
Vt
Gen is over excited, and pf is Lagging
jIaXs
Ia
Demagnetizing action
Ef
3. If Ef cos < Vt , Q = -ve,

Generator absorbs Q
Gen is under excited, and pf is Leading
Magnetizing action

Ia

Vt
Ef cos

In general, the conclusions for Synchronous Machine are:

1. If Ef cos > Vt ,

Machine is over excited,

Machine produces or delivers or exports reactive power to

infinite bus.
2. If Ef cos < Vt ,

Machine is under excited,

Machine consumes or absorbs or imports reactive power

from infinite bus.

Physical
Explanation of
Torque

Ef

=90++

Y2

R1

Sa
Nf

B2

Na

Repulsion

a
Sf

Y1

B1

R2

jIaXs
Vt Iara
Ia

Generator


Ef

=90++

Y2

R1

Sa
Nf

B2

Te

jIaXs
Vt Iara
Ia

Te
f

Na

a
Sf

B1

R2

Y1
Repulsion Rotor try to move clockwise

Generator
Te is opposite to


Ef

=90++

R1

Sa
Nf

Te
f

Na

Generator
Te is opposite to

Y2

B2

Te

jIaXs
Vt Iara
Ia

a
Sf

Sa

B1
Sf
R2

Y1
Repulsion Rotor try to move clockwise

Na
Nf

Lagging
Stator
Vt
Ef
Rotor
Leading


Ef

=90++

R1

Sa
Nf

Te
f

Na

Generator
Te is opposite to

Y2

B2

Te

jIaXs
Vt Iara
Ia

a
Sf

Sa

B1
Sf
R2

Y1
Repulsion Rotor try to move clockwise

Na
Nf

Lagging
Stator
Vt
Ef
Rotor
Leading


Ef

=90++

R1

Sa
Nf

Te
f

Na

Generator
Te is opposite to

Y2

B2

Te

jIaXs
Vt Iara
Ia

a
Sf

Sa

B1
Sf
R2

Y1
Repulsion Rotor try to move clockwise

Na
Nf

Lagging
Stator
Vt
Ef
Rotor
Leading


Ef

=90++
<180
Y2
R1

Sa
Nf

B2

Te

Te
f

Na

a
Sf

Generator
Te is opposite to

jIaXs
Vt Iara
Ia

Sa

B1
Sf
R2

Na

180

Y1
Repulsion Rotor try to move clockwise

Nf

Lagging
Stator
Vt
Ef
Rotor
Leading

Te


Ef

=90++
<180
Y2
R1

Sa
Nf

B2

Te

Te
f

Na

a
Sf

Generator
Te is opposite to
Increase
VIcos decreases
decreases

jIaXs
Vt Iara
Ia

Sa

B1
Sf
R2

Na

180

Y1
Repulsion Rotor try to move clockwise

Nf

Lagging
Stator
Vt
Ef
Rotor
Leading

Te


Ef

=90++
<180
Y2
R1

Sa
Nf

B2

Te

Te
f

Na

a
Sf

Generator
Te is opposite to
Increase
VIcos decreases
decreases

jIaXs
Vt Iara
Ia

Sa

B1
Sf
R2

Na

180

Y1
Repulsion Rotor try to move clockwise

Nf

Lagging
Stator
Vt
Ef
Rotor
Leading

Te


Ef
Te

=90++
<180

Y2

R1

Sa

Sa

B2

Nf
Na

Te
f

Generator
Te is opposite to
Increase
VIcos decreases
decreases

jIaXs
Vt Iara
Ia

a
Sf

B1

Na

Sf

180

R2

Y1
Repulsion Rotor try to move clockwise

Nf

Lagging
Stator
Vt
Ef
Rotor
Leading

Te


Ef
Te

=90++
=180
<180

Y2

R1

Sa

Sa

B2

Nf
Na

Te
f

Generator
Te is opposite to
Again Increase
upto 90
VIcos =0, =0
Lagging
Stator
Vt
Na

jIaXs
Vt Iara
Ia

a
Sf

B1

Sf

180

R2

Y1
Repulsion Rotor try to move clockwise

Nf

Ef
Rotor
Leading

Te


Ef

=90++
=180
R1

a
Sf

f
Y2

B2

Te

Te

jIaXs
Vt Iara
Ia
a

Sa

Generator
Te is opposite to
Again Increase
upto 90
VIcos =0, =0
In PhaseLagging
with Ef
Stator
Vt
Na

Sa

Na

Ef
f
Rotor

In Phase Leading
with Vt
180

Te
Repulsion Rotor try to move clockwise
Nf

Sf

Nf

B1

Y1

R2


Ef

=90++
=180
R1

Sa

Na

Y2

B2

Nf

a
Sf

Te

Te

jIaXs
Vt Iara
Ia
a

B1

Y1

R2

Repulsion on BOTH sides

Sa

Generator
Te is opposite to
Again Increase
upto 90
VIcos =0, =0
In Phase with Ef
Stator
Vt
Na

Ef
Rotor

In Phase with Vt
180

Resultant Te=0
Te
No Gen, No Motor

Sf

Nf

=90++
=180
<180
R1

Sa

Na

Y2

B2

Nf

a
Sf

Again Increase > 90

jIaXs
Ef
cos is ve, = -ve
Vt Vt Iara
Vt leads Ef
I
a
G
MOTOR
a

f
a Ia M In Phase with Ef
Stator
Vt
Sa
Na

B1

Y1

Sf

Ef
Rotor

In Phase with Vt
180

Resultant T =0
Nf

R2

Repulsion on BOTH sides

No Gen, No Motor

=90++
<180
R1

a Ia M In Phase with Ef
Stator
Vt
Na

Sa

Na

Again Increase > 90

jIaXs
cos is ve, = -ve
Iara
Vt leads Ef

G
MOTOR

Y2

B2

Nf

a
Sf

Ef
Vt

B1

Y1

R2

Repulsion on BOTH sides

Sa
Sf

Ef
Rotor

In Phase with Vt
180

Nf

=90++
<180
R1

Sa

Na

Y2

B2

Nf

a
Sf

B1

Y1

Ef
Vt

Again Increase > 90

jIaXs
cos is ve, = -ve
Iara
Vt leads Ef

G
MOTOR

a Ia M In Phase with Ef
Stator
Vt
Na

Sa
Sf

Ef
Rotor

In Phase with Vt
180

R2

Repulsion, rotor moves anticlockwise

Nf


Ef
Vt

Again Increase > 90

jIaXs
cos is ve, = -ve
Iara
Vt leads Ef

G
MOTOR

a Ia M In Phase with Ef
Stator
Vt
Na

Te

=90++
<180
B2

f
R1

Y1

Te

a
Sf

Sa

Y2

Ef
f
Rotor

In Phase with Vt
180

Te
Repulsion, rotor moves anticlockwise
Nf

Sf

Nf

Sa

B1

R2


Ef
Vt

Again Increase > 90

jIaXs
cos is ve, = -ve
Iara
Vt leads Ef

G
MOTOR

a Ia M In Phase with Ef
Stator
Vt
Na

Te

=90++
<180
B2

f
R1

Y1

Te

a
Sf

Sa

Y2

Ef
f
Rotor

In Phase with Vt
180

Te
Repulsion, rotor moves anticlockwise
Nf

Sf

Nf

Sa

B1

R2

Again Increase > 90

jIaXs
cos is ve, = -ve
Iara
Vt leads Ef

G
MOTOR

Leading
In
Phase
with Ef
I
a a M
Stator
Vt
Sa
Na

Te

=90++
<180
B2

f
R1

Y1

Te

Ef
Vt

a
Sf

Sa

Y2

Ef
f
Rotor

In PhaseLagging
with Vt
180
Thus for GEN or for MOTOR

=90++ <180
Te
Repulsion, rotor moves anticlockwise
Nf

Sf

Nf

Sa

B1

R2


Ef
Vt

Te

=90++
<180
B2

R1

Y1

Te

a
Sf

Sa

Again Increase > 90

jIaXs
cos is ve, = -ve
Iara
Vt leads Ef

G
MOTOR
a

Ia M
Na

Leading
Stator
Vt
Sa

Y2

Ef
f
Rotor

Lagging
180
Thus for GEN or for MOTOR

=90++ <180
Te
Repulsion, rotor moves anticlockwise
Nf

Sf

Nf

Sa

B1

R2

Expression for Torque

GENERATOR Tm is opposite to Te
Cyl Rotor
Pm
Mechanical Power Developed , Pm
Te
Nm
2 nrps
Rotor Speed in Mech. rad . / sec .
3 E f Ia

3E f I a cos( ) / 2 nrps
2 nrps

E f I a Er I a
3 Er I a
3Er I a cos( r ) / 2 nrps
2 nrps
3 4.44 T ph f K w I a cos( r ) / 2 nrps

Te

Ef

jIaXs
Er
r Vt

Ia

Ef

GENERATOR

Er

'

E f I a Er I a
Te

'

3 E f Ia
2 nrps

3E

Salient Pole Rotor

jIdXd
jI

E f

jIqXq

'
f

I a cos( ) / 2 nrps

3Er I a cos( r ) / 2 nrps

3 4.44 T ph f K w I a cos( r ) / 2 nrps

Vt
Ia

Iara

MOTOR Tm is in same direction as that of Te

Cyl Rotor
3 E f I a
Te
2 nrps

Vt
Er

3E f I a cos( ) / 2 nrps

E f I a Er I a
3 Er I a
Te
2 nrps

3Er I a cos( r ) / 2 nrps

3 4.44 T ph f K w I a cos( r ) / 2 nrps

jIaXs
r

Ef

Ia

Vt

3E f I a cos( ) / 2 nrps
'

'

E f I a Er I a

3 Er I a
Te
2 nrps

3Er I a cos( r ) / 2 nrps

3 4.44 T ph f K w I a cos( r ) / 2 nrps

Er

jIdXd

Salient Pole Rotor

'
3 E f Ia
Te
2 nrps

X
jI a

MOTOR

jIqXq
r

Ef
Ef

Ia

Circle Diagram of a Syn Motor

Circle diagram gives very good idea about steady
state performance.
This is obtained by varying mechanical load and excitation.
Consider only cylindrical rotor motor with constant ra and Xs.
1. Excitation Circle
This gives the locus of armature current Ia when
excitation voltage Ef and load angle are varied.
The voltage equation is Vt E f I a Z s
Ef
Vt
Ia

Z s Zs
Ef
Vt
( z )
( z )
If Vt is taken as reference, then I a
Zs
Zs

Ef
Vt
( z )
Ia
z
Zs
Zs

Vt
Ef

z
Ef /Zs

Ia

C Vt /Zs

Ef
Vt
( z )
Ia
z
Zs
Zs

Vt
Ef

z
Ef /Zs

Ef >Vt

Ia MAX

Ia
z

C Vt /Zs
B

If load is changed, will

change for a constant Ef
Then Ia follows the path
of CIRCLE.
A

This locus is known as Excitation Circle.

For MAX power, =z
If Ef >Vt , then for constant , Ia is equal to OD. Pf leading
If Ef <Vt , then for constant ,

Ef
Vt
( z )
Ia
z
Zs
Zs

Vt
Ef

z
Ef /Zs

Ef >Vt

Ia MAX

Ia
Ef <Vt
z

C Vt /Zs
B

If load is changed, will

change for a constant Ef
Then Ia follows the path
of CIRCLE.
A

This locus is known as Excitation Circle.

For MAX power, =z
If Ef >Vt , then for constant , Ia is equal to OD. Pf leading
If Ef <Vt , then for constant , Pf lagging

2. Power Circle
This gives the locus of armature current Ia when
mechanical power developed Pm and power factor angle
are varied.
Pm = Output power Po or Shaft power Psh + Constant loss
Pm = Pe - Copper loss
2
Vt I a cos I a ra
The equation can be written as
Vt
Pm
2
I a I a cos
0
ra
ra
Vt
Pm
2
2
2
2
I a cos I a sin I a cos
0
OR
ra
ra
Let x=Iasin and y=Iacos, then
V
P
x2 y2 t y m 0
ra
ra

This is a equation of a circle

Vt
Pm
x y y
0
ra
ra
2

Centre of a circle is

Radius of a circle is
2
2
General eqn of circle is x y 2 gx 2 fy c 0

Centre = (-g, -f) and radius=

g2 f 2 c

V
0, t
2ra
Vt

2ra

Pm

ra

Vt
Pm
x y y
0
ra
ra
2

Centre of a circle is

y
Radius of a circle is

Vt
Vt/ra

Zero power
circle

Pm

ra

Vt/2ra
Ia

x=Iasin

I a sin 2 I a cos 2

Ia

and COA , Lagging

Vt

2ra

This is a power circle

OA

V
0, t
2ra

y=Iacos

Thus any point on

circle gives Ia and
its pf angle .
x

Vt
If Pm =0, then radius is
2ra

As power increases, radius decreases

Point C is the maximum power point.
y
Vt
Zero power
circle

Vt/ra

Vt

2ra

Vt
Pmax
P

0 and max
4ra
ra
V
radius t OC I a
2ra

Max power Input Vt I a cos

Vt
Vt
1
2ra
V
/2r
2
C
t
a
Vt

A
2ra
2
V
Ia
t
y=IacosMax power output, Pmax
4ra

x
O
So effn is 50%
x=Iasin
50% Loss More temp rise
Motor never operated at that point

If power equation is solved, TWO arm currents are

obtained Ia1 and Ia2
y

P
Vt

Ia1

Ia2

Vt/ra

Zero power
circle
C

Ia2
Vt/2ra
Ia1

A
Ia

x=Iasin

Out of these, LOWER

current Ia1 is selected

y=Iacos
x

Ef /Zs

Vt

For point A, Ef /Zs=0, If=0,

Ia=OA
Increase excitation

Pm=0
O

V Curves

Vt /Zs
A
Ia
A

If

Vt

Ef /Zs
C

Pm=0

E
O

z
G
Ia

F
Vt /Zs
A

V Curves
For point A, Ef /Zs=0, If=0,
Ia=OA
Increase excitation AE=If1
Excitation Circle
Again increase excitation to If2

A
G

If1

If

Ef /Zs
H

Pm=0
O

I
E
F
Vt /Zs
A

z
J

V Curves

Vt

G
Ia

For point A, Ef /Zs=0, If=0,

Ia=OA
Increase excitation AE=If1
Excitation Circle
Again increase excitation to If2
Increase excitation to If3

A
G
J
O

If1 If2

If

Ef /Zs

Increase excitation to If4

Vt

K
H

Pm=0
O

I
E
F
Vt /Zs
A

z
L

G
Ia

Excitation Circle
K

A
G
J
O

If1 If2 If3

If

Ef /Zs
M

Pm=0
O

I
E
F
Vt /Zs
A

z
L

Increase excitation to If5

Increase excitation to If6

K
H

Increase excitation to If4

Vt
N

G
Ia

Excitation Circle
K N

A
G
J
O

If1 If2 If3 If4 If5

If6

If

Ef /Zs
M

Pm=0
O

I
E
F
Vt /Zs
A

z
L

Increase excitation to If5

Increase excitation to If6

K
H

Increase excitation to If4

Vt
N

G
Ia

Excitation Circle
K N

Inverted V Curve

A
G
Dotted and thick line
complete, is O Curve

V Curve
J

If1 If2 If3 If4 If5

If6

If

Ef /Zs
M

Pm=0
O

I
E
F
Vt /Zs
A

z
L

Increase excitation to If5

Increase excitation to If6

K
H

Increase excitation to If4

Vt
N

G
Ia

Excitation Circle
K N

Inverted V Curve

A
G
Dotted and thick line
complete, or as whole,
is O Curve

V Curve
J

If1 If2 If3 If4 If5

If6

If

Pm=0
O

Ef /Zs
M

Excitation Line
Consider AB At pt A, Ia=OA
At pt E, Ia=OE At pt H, Ia=OH
At pt C, Ia=OC At pt M, Ia=OM
At pt B, Ia=OB

Vt
N
K

I
E
F
Vt /Zs
A

L J G
Unity Power factor Line Ia
A

K N

Excitation Line

G
J
O

If1 If2 If3 If4 If5

If6

If

C
2

Pm=0

1
O

Ef /Zs
M

Excitation Line
Consider AB At pt A, Ia=OA
At pt E, Ia=OE At pt H, Ia=OH
At pt C, Ia=OC At pt M, Ia=OM
At pt B, Ia=OB

Vt
N
K

I
E
F
Vt /Zs
A

L J G
Unity Power factor Line Ia
Consider OD
A
At pt O, Ia=0,
If=AO=AM=If4
At pt 1, Ia=O1, If=A1
At pt 2, Ia=O2, If=A2
At pt C, Ia=OC, If=AC=If3 O

K N

Excitation Line

G
J

If1 If2 If3 If4 If5

If6

If

Ef /Zs
M
C
2

Pm=0

1
O

D
3

I
E
F
Vt /Zs
A

L J G
Unity Power factor Line Ia
A
At pt 3, I =O3, I =A3
a

Excitation Line
Consider AB At pt A, Ia=OA
At pt E, Ia=OE At pt H, Ia=OH
At pt C, Ia=OC At pt M, Ia=OM
At pt B, Ia=OB

Vt
N

K N

Excitation Line

At pt D, Ia=OD,
If=AD=If5

G
J
O

If1 If2 If3 If4 If5

If6

If

Ef /Zs
M
C
2

Pm=0

1
O

D
3

I
E
F
Vt /Zs
A

L J G
Unity Power factor Line Ia
A
At pt 3, I =O3, I =A3
a

Excitation Line
Consider AB At pt A, Ia=OA
At pt E, Ia=OE At pt H, Ia=OH
At pt C, Ia=OC At pt M, Ia=OM
At pt B, Ia=OB

Vt
N

K N

Excitation Line

At pt D, Ia=OD,
If=AD=If5

G
J
O

If1 If2 If3 If4 If5

If6

If

Ef /Zs
E
M
C

Pm=0
1

Pm1
O

Vt

D
2
H

Minimum and Maximum Ia and If

for different power
For Pm1, Iamin= O1 , Iamax= O2
Ifmin= AE Ifmax= AE

E
z

UPF Line

A
Ia
A

Excitation Line

If

Ef /Zs
2
E
M 4
C

Pm=0
1

Pm1
Pm2

H
E

UPF Line

Vt

Minimum and Maximum Ia and If

for different power
For Pm1, Iamin= O1 , Iamax= O2
Ifmin= AE Ifmax= AE
Iamin= O3 Iamax= O4
Ifmin= AH Ifmax= AM
There are bends in
thses two lines

Ia
A

Excitation Line

If

Ef /Zs
2
E
M 4
C

Pm=0
1

Pm1
Pm2

Vt

H
E

A
Ia

Minimum and Maximum Ia and If

for different power
For Pm1, Iamin= O1 , Iamax= O2
Ifmin= AE Ifmax= AE
For Pm2, Iamin= O3 Iamax= O4
Ifmin= AH Ifmax= AM
There are bends in
thses two lines

UPF Line
For Pm2, if excitation is A
Excitation Line
reduced ie less than AH
Pm2
Strength of Magnetic
O Curve for
P
m1
locking decreases
different powers
Motor oscillates Meter pointer oscillates
Pm=0
Motor is unable to drive load
If
O
This is called as loosing synchronism or out of step

Ef /Zs
2
E
M 4
C

Pm=0
1

Pm1
Pm2

Vt

lagging

A
Ia

Minimum and Maximum Ia and If

for different power
Meter
Leading
From M decrease
excitation
Upto H stable opn
After H unstable
opn

For Pm2, if excitation is A

reduced ie less than AH
Pm2
Strength of Magnetic
Pm1
locking decreases
Motor oscillates Meter pointer oscillates
Pm=0
Motor is unable to drive load
O
This is called as loosing synchronism or out of step

If

Ef /Zs
2
E
M 4
C

Pm=0
1

Pm1
Pm2

Minimum and Maximum Ia and If

for different power

H
E

A
Ia

Max Excitation
A
E f max
Vt
AB
OD
ra
Zs
E f max

Vt

Vt
Zs
ra

Pm2
Pm1
Pm=0

If

V and inverted V curves

1

Inverted V Curves

pf

Pm=0
Pm1=0.75pu

Pm1=0.25pu

lagging pf
UPF Line

Leading pf

Ia
Excitation Line

A
Pm2
Pm1
O

V Curves
Pm=0

If

V and inverted V curves

1

Inverted V Curves

pf

Pm=0
Pm1=0.75pu

Pm1=0.25pu

lagging pf
UPF Line

Leading pf

Ia
Excitation Line

A
Pm2
Pm1
O

V Curves
Pm=0

If

Parallel Operation of TWO Alternators

Synchronization, Reasons and methods
Two important characteristics of syn machine
1. Constant speed at constant frequency
2. Ability to operate both at leading and lagging power factor.
After Synchronization,
1. Effect of Changing Mechanical Torque
The Mechanical Driving Torque can be varied by controlling
Gate opening in case of hydro-generators
Throttle opening in case of turbo-generators
For simplicity consider cyl rotor generator
But the results are applicable to both types
First consider no load operation

a) No load operation

Ef1
Vt

Zs1

Ef1

Zs2

Ef1

Ef2

Ef2
Ef2

Two alternators in parallel

Unloaded
Externally Ef1 and Ef2 are in phase

External Circuit Local Circuit

In local circuit Ef1 and Ef2 are in phase opposition

a) No load operation

1520

Ef1

1500rpm

Ef1

Increase driving torque of Gen 1

Ic
Vt
Speed
of
Gen
1
increases.
Ec E f 1 E f 2
Ef1 Ef2
Ef1 gets ahead ofZEf2
s2
Zs1

Ic appears
Ic
Resultant voltage
between Ef1 & Ef2
Ec
Ef1 Ef 2
I c to
this there is circulating
Due

Ef1 Z s1 Z s 2
Ef2
current Ic between Gen 1 & 2.
Ec
Ef2
Ic lags Ec by 900 which is
given by
External Circuit Local Circuit

tan

X s1 X s 2
900
ra1 ra 2

Since circulating current Ic is

flowing in local circuit, this circuit
gives better idea.

a) No load operation

1520

Increase driving torque of Gen 1

Speed of Gen 1 increases.
Ef1
Ef1 gets ahead of Ef2
Resultant voltage appears
between Ef1 & Ef2
Due to this there is circulating
current Ic between Gen 1 & 2.
Ic lags Ec by 900 which is
given by

tan

X s1 X s 2
900
ra1 ra 2

1500rpm

Ef1

Ef2

Ec

Ec

Ef2
External Circuit Local Circuit

Since circulating current Ic is

flowing in local circuit, this circuit
gives better idea.

a) No load operation

1520

For Gen 1
Ef1Iccos1=+ve

Ef1

So Gen 1 operates as GEN

So Gen 2 operates as MOTOR

Speed of Gen 2 increases

Ef1

Ef2

Speed of Gen 1 decreases

For Gen 2
Ef2Iccos2=-ve

1510 1500rpm

Ec

Ec

Ef2

1510

External Circuit Local Circuit

Thus there is AUTO-Equalization of speed or

auto synchronizing action

a) No load operation
Now consider Zs1 & Zs2 purely resistive.
Ic will be in phase with Ec

Ef1

Ef1Iccos= Ef2Iccos
Both generators operate as a
generators
Therefore there is no AUTOEqualization of speed or auto
synchronizing action

Ef1

Ef2

Ec

Ec

Ef2
External Circuit Local Circuit

Thus reactance is useful for auto synchronizing action

But bad for voltage regulation

a) On load operation
IL
Vt
Zs2

Zs1
Ia1

Ia2

Ef1

L
O
A
D

Ef2

Assume that
Ef1=Ef2

Ia1=Ia2

Power factor=cos

Total current =IL= Ia1+Ia2= 2Ia1=2Ia2

On load operation
depends on PMs
speed-load
characteristics

1
PM
load
PM

Now increase mech. driving torque of

Gen 1, its speed becomes more.
In order to maintain
freq. constant, decrease
the mech. driving torque
of Gen 2.
P1 +P2=2P

Speed or freq
f
f

P2 P2
P1 +P2=2P
Load of Gen 2
f >f, P1 >P1
P2= P2
Thus increase in mech. driving torque, increases

P2 <P2
frequency and load sharing of that generator.
P1 P1
Load of Gen 1

E f1=

For internal behaviour of gen, draw phasor diagram,

Power shared by Alt r
E f 1Vt
Ef2
sin =P2
P1
jIa1Xs = jIa2Xs
Xs
Ef1
E f 2Vt
Vt

sin
Xs
IL
Vt I a1 cos Vt I a 2 cos
2
E f2

Now increase mech driving

torque of Alt 1
Speed of Alt 1 increases, freq f
increases to f and increases to 1
E f 1Vt
sin 1
Power P1 increases to P1
Xs
For freq f , decrease mech driving torque of Alt 2
E f 2Vt
sin 2
Power P2 decreases to P2

Ia1= Ia2

E f1=

Between Ef1 and Ef2, there is a voltage difference Ec

Due to Ec,the Ic circulates between two alternators.
Ef2
Vf2t .
Ic flows from Ef1 to E
jIa1Xs = jIa2Xs
Ec E f 1 E f 2
Ic is added to ZIa1
Ef1
s2
Zs1
Vt
Ia1Ic+ Ic = Ia1
Pf angleEdecreases,
pf increases

E
f1
f2
Ic
Ic is
Ef1subtracted
Z s1 Z s 2 from IE
a2 f2
I -I =I
a2
c
a2

E f2

Pf angle increases, pf decreases

Ic

But again Ia1+ Ia2 =IL

IL

2
Ia1

1
1

Ec

Ia2
Ia1= Ia2

Thus it is concluded that if mech driving torque is increased

1. Ia increases. 2. pf increases or improves 3. Load sharing increases

2. Effect of Changing Excitation

The Excitation can be controlled with the help of Field Rheostat
Field current effects reactive power and power factor
Actually Ia changes, Ia2ra loss changes so active power changes
Ef1
But this change is
Local circuit phasor
a) No loadnegligible.
operation
Ef1
diagram is useful
Ef1
Increase excitation of Gen 1
Vt
E Increases
f1

Zs1

Ef1

Ec=Ef1- Ef1

Ec

Zs2
Ic

Ic

Ic lags to Ef1

Demagnetizing
Ef1 decreases to Ef1
Ic leads to Ef2
Magnetizing

Ef2
Ef2

Ef2

Ef2 increases to Ef2

2. Effect of Changing Excitation

Thus there is Auto-Equalization of emf or voltages.

Ef1 240v
235v Ef1
Ef1

230v

Vt
Zs1

Ef1

Ec

Zs2
Ic

Ic
Ef2
Ef2

Ef2

235v

2. Effect of Changing Excitation

Thus there is Auto-Equalization of emf or voltages.
New terminal voltages Vt= Ef1 - Ic Zs1 and Vt= Ef2 + Ic Zs2
Vt

Ef1 Ef 2
2

b) On load operation
IL

Again assume that

Vt
Zs2

Zs1
Ia1
Ef1

Ia2
Ef2

Ef1=Ef2
L
O
A
D

Ia1=Ia2

Total current =IL= Ia1+Ia2

=2Ia1=2Ia2
Power factor=cos

Power shared by Alt r

E f sin constant
E f 1Vt

E
f1
sin =P2
P1
Xs
jIa1Xs = jIa2Xs
Ef1= Ef2
E f 2Vt

sin
Xs
Vt
Ef2
Vt I a1 cos Vt I a 2 cos
IL
2
Due to excitation, power remains constant
E f sin constant, for constant Vt and X s
1

I a cos constant, for constant Vt

Now increase excitation of Alt 1 to Ef1

Ia1= Ia2

For maintaining Vt constant,

Decrease excitation of Alt 2 to Ef2
E f 1Vt
Xs

'

'

sin

E f 1 Vt
Xs

sin 1

E f 2 Vt
Xs

sin 2

Now Ec=Ef1- Ef2

Ic lags to Ec by 900
I =Ia1+ Ic

a1

Thus if excitation is increased,

Ia increases, Q increases
pf angle increases, pf decreases
I =Ia2- Ic
Thus if excitation is decreased,
Ia decreases, Q decreases

a2

Ef1

E f sin constant

jIa1Xs

Ef1= Ef2
Ef2

jIa2Xs

jIa1Xs = jIa2Xs
Vt
IL

2
1
Ia2

Ia1
Ic

pf angle decreases, pf increases

2

Ia1= Ia2

Load Division

Vt

ZL=load impedance
Vt I a1 I a 2 Z L (1)
Vt E f 1 I a1Z s1

Ia1

Vt E f 2 I a 2 Z s 2
I a1
Ia2

Ef1

E f 1 Vt

Zs2

Zs1
Ia2

Ef2

Z s1
E f 2 Vt
Zs2

Put Ia1 and Ia2 in eqn (1)

E f 1 Vt E f 2 Vt
Vt

Z s1
Zs2

On simplification

Z L

Ef1 Ef 2
1
1
1

Vt

Z s1 Z s 2
Z s1 Z s 2 Z L

L
O
A
D

E f 1 I a1Z s1
I a1 I a 2 Z L 0 (1)
E f 2 Ia2Z s2

Vt
Zs2

Zs1

I a1 I a 2 Z L 0 (2) I
a1
(1) (2) gives
E

Ia2

E f 2 E f 1 I a1Z s1
Zs2

Ia2
Ef2

f1

E f 1 E f 2 I a1Z s1 I a 2 Z s 2

L
O
A
D

(3)

Ef1 Ef 2

Putting (3) in (1) gives I a1

Z s1Z L
Z Z
Z s1 Z L
Z s1 Z s 2 s1 s 2
Zs2
ZL
Ef1

No load condition, ZL=

Ic

Ef1 Ef 2
Z s1 Z s 2

Ic

Example
Sketch the phasor diagrams of a 3-phase syn machine
(a) At the moment of synchronizing
(b) When working as a motor
(c) When working as a generator
Draw equivalent circuit diagrams
(a) At the moment of synchronizing: Ef=Vt

Both are in phase

is zero, Power is zero, Ia is zero,

Ef

Ia=0

Vt

Xs

Ef

Vt

(b) When working as a motor, Vt=Ef+jIaXs

Ia

jIaXs
Vt

Ia

Ef

+
Ef

Xs

+
Vt

(cb) When working as a generator, Ef=Vt+jIaXs

jIaXs
Ef

Ia

Ia
Vt

+
Ef
-

Xs

+
Vt
-

Example
It is desirable that the incoming machine should be a little too
fast at the time of synchronizing. Explain.
Consider Gen 1 is on load and supplying Ia1 & power P1
Ef1=Ef2 Incoming machine is Gen 2.
Gen 2 -slower
Falls back
P=Ef1Ia1cos 1>P1
Current of Gen 1
increases to Ia1
Load on Gen 1
increases

Ef1

Ia1
1

Ec

Ic
2

Ef2

Ia1

For Gen 2
P=Ef2Iccos 2=-ve
Operates as Motor

Both operations are undesirable

Example
It is desirable that the incoming machine should be a little too
fast at the time of synchronizing. Explain.
Consider Gen 1 is on load and supplying Ia1 & power P1
Ef1=Ef2 Incoming machine is Gen 2.
Gen 2 little faster
Ef2 gets ahead
P=Ef1Ia1cos 1>P1

Ef1
1

Current of Gen 1
decreases to Ia1

Ia1
Ia1

Ec

Load on Gen 1
decreases
Gen 1 is relieved

For Gen 2

Ic
Ef2

P=Ef2Iccos 2=+ve
Operates as Generator
Both operations are desirable

Example
Two similar alternators operating in parallel have data:
Alt 1: Capacity 700kW, freq 50Hz at no load & drops at
48.5Hz at full load
Alt 2: Capacity 700kW, freq 50.5Hz at no load & drops at
48Hz at full load
Speed regulation of PM is linear
a)

Calculate how a total load of 1200kW is shared by each

alternator
Also find the operating bus bar frequency at this load.
b) Calculate the maximum load that these two units can
deliver without overloading either of them.

Solution

x
d

OA=50.5Hz
OB=50.0Hz

Frequency
A

700kW

c 48.5Hz
e
48Hz 700kW

Load of Gen 1
xyz is line for load =1200kW
xy+yz =1200kW
From similar triangles, Bcd and Byx,
xy cd
xy
700

By Bc
OB Oy OB Oc
700
50 f
xy
1.5

Load of Gen 2

xy
700

50 f 50 48.5

Solution

x
d

700kW

From similar triangles, Aeg and Ayz,

yz

c 48.5Hz
e
48Hz 700kW

Load of Gen 1
xyz is line for load =1200kW
xy+yz =1200kW

yz
700

50.5 f 50.5 48

OA=50.5Hz
OB=50.0Hz

Frequency
A

Load of Gen 2

yz eg

Ay Ae

700
50.5 f
2.5

yz
700

OA Oy OA Oe

Solution

x
d

OA=50.5Hz
OB=50.0Hz

Frequency
A

700kW

c 48.5Hz
e
48Hz 700kW

Load of Gen 1
700
700
50.5 f
50 f
1200=
2.5
1.5

Load of Gen 2

f 48.58Hz
700
50 48.58 662.4kW , and
xy
1.5
700
50.5 48.58 537.6kW
yz
2.5

Solution

x
d

OA=50.5Hz
OB=50.0Hz

Frequency
A

700kW

Load of Gen 1

c 48.5Hz
e
48Hz 700kW
O

Load of Gen 2

b) From A to O, Alt 1 is loaded first for 700kW, ie de line at 48.5Hz.

Extend c to c
cc'
eg
cc'
700

OA Oc OA Oe
50.5 48.5 50.5 48
700
2 560kW
cc'
2.5
Maximum possible load =700 560 1260kW at 48.5 Hz

Synchronous Machine connected to

Infinite Bus
If syn gen is connected in parallel with another gen then
voltage can be changed by excitation and
frequency can be changed by driving torque.
Ef

Ia

Xs
Vt, f

But if syn machine is connected in parallel with infinite bus, then

voltage & frequency remain constant due to infinite bus.

1. Effect of Changing Mechanical Torque

The Mechanical Driving Torque can be varied by controlling
Gate opening in case of hydro-generators
Throttle opening in case of turbo (or steam) -generators
For simplicity consider cyl rotor generator
But the results are applicable to both types
First consider no load operation

a) No load operation
Unloaded =0, Ef in phase with Vt
The voltage equation Ef=Vt+jIaXs
No Active Power is transferred to infinite bus
Gen supplies reactive power.
PM merely supplies gen losses.
Ef
jIaXs
Vt

Ia

b) ON load operation
Loaded, load angle is and pf lagging
E f Vt
Ef=Vt+jIaXs
P
sin Vt I a cos
Xs
If driving torque increases, increases, power increases.
The maximum stable value of is 900.
Ef
Ef
Power factor is leading
Vt & f remain constant
jIaXs
jIaXs
If is decreased,
Vt
becomes zero
Ia1
Vt
1
No load condition

Xs
1
I
a
j

90

Ef

Ia
Ia

b) ON load operation
Loaded, load angle is and pf lagging
E f Vt
Ef=Vt+jIaXs
P
sin Vt I a cos
Xs
If driving torque increases, increases, power increases.
The maximum stable value of is 900.
Ef
Ef
Power factor is leading
Vt & f remain constant
jIaXs
jIaXs
If is decreased,
Vt
Vt
becomes zero
Ia1
1
No load condition
After that if PM is
decoupled
Ef lags Vt, is -ve
Gen operates as
Motor Vt=Ef+jIaXs

Xs
1
I
a
j

90

Ef

Ia

Ia

2. Effect of Changing Excitation

The Excitation can be controlled with the help of Field Rheostat
Field current effects reactive power and power factor
Actually Ia changes, Ia2ra loss changes so active power changes
But this change is
Ef1
Ic lags to Ef1
a) No loadnegligible.
operation
jIcXs
Delivers Q
Vt
If losses are neglected,
Ef1 Vt V
Demagnetizing
t
jIcXs
is zero, power is zero
Vt E f
Ef2
If Ef=Vt, no current flows
Now decrease
neither to, or from infinite bus
Synchronous machine is said
to be FLOATING on the bus

excitation to Ef2
Ic

Increase Excitation to Ef1

E f Vt
Ic
Xs
Thus alternator voltage = Vt

Ic leads to Ef2
Absorbs Q
Magnetizing
Vt E f

b) ON load operation
Suppose Gen is supplying power with angle and pf Unity
E f Vt
With Pm constant, P
sin Vt I a cos = Constant
Xs
E f sin I a cos Constant
E f sin constant

Increase Ef to Ef1
E f sin E f 1 sin 1
Power factor is lagging
Ia increases to Ia1=Ia+Ic1
I a cos I a1 cos 1 I a

Ia =active component
Ic1=demagnetizing component
Supply Q

Ef1

jIa
1X

jIaXs

Ef

Vt

Ia
1

Ic1
Ia1

b) ON load operation
Suppose Gen is supplying power with angle and pf Unity
E f Vt
With Pm constant, P
sin Vt I a cos = Constant
Xs
E f sin I a cos Constant
E f sin constant

Decrease Ef to Ef2
E f sin E f 2 sin 2

Power factor is leading

Ia increases to Ia2=Ia+Ic2
I a cos I a 2 cos 2 I a
Ia =active component
Ic2=magnetizing component
Absorb Q
Active power P remains constant
Ia, pf, and Q change

Ef1

jIa
1X

jIaXs

Ef
X
jI a2
2

Ef2

Ic2
Ia2

Vt

Ia
1

Ic1
Ia1

b) ON load operation

pf
UPF line

E f sin constant
Lagging

Leading

Ef1

jIa
1X

jIaXs

If

Ia

Ef
X
jI a2
2

Ef2
UPF

Ic2
Leading

Lagging
If

Ia2

Vt

Ia
1

Ic1
Ia1

Example
A 3-ph star connected cyl rotor alternator with synchronous
reactance 5 per phase, is supplying 240A at unity pf
to a 11kV infinite bus.
a) If the excitation emf of the altr is increased by 25% without changing
its driving torque, calculate the new values of current, pf and .
Will there be any change in power supplied to the infinite bus?Explain
b) With the increased excitation of part (a), held fixed, at what power
power output would the alternator break from synchronism? Find the
corresponding values of current and power factor.

Per phase infinite bus voltage

Vb=11000/3=6351V
Pf =1
Ef=Vt+jIaXs =6351+j240x5 =6463.4V
a) New value of excitation Ef1 =1.25x6463.4 =8079.3V
Ia1cos=Ia =240A
Ef1

Ef12=(Vt+Ia1Xssin)2+(Ia1Xscos)2
Ia1sin=327.74A
Ia1= {(Ia1sin)2+ (Ia1cos)2} =406.22
Pf=cos=0.591 Lagging
Initial angle =tan -1(IaXs /Vt)
=10.70
E f sin E f 1 sin 1

jIa1Xs
jIaXs

Ef

Vt
1

Ia

1 8.540
Since driving torque is unchanged, Power P remains unchanged

Ia1

b) With constant Ef, maximum power output takes place

when is 900
E f 1Vt
sin 90 10262.3kW per phase
Max power output
Xs
2

From Fig , I a 2 X s E f 1 Vt 10276.67

8079.3V
Ef1
jIa1Xs
jIaXs

Ia2=2055.3A
Power factor is leading
P
Power factor =
Vt I a 2
10262.3

6.351 2055.3

Ia2
j

0.786

I a2X s

Ef
1

90

Ef1

Vt
6351V
Ia

Ia1

Example
An alternator is supplying 60% of its rated power to an
infinite
bus at rated voltage and frequency. The excitation voltage is
made equal to rated voltage. The per unit reactance is 0.8
a) Determine the power angle, armature current and pf of the machine
b) If the excitation is increased by 40% with prime mover driving torque
Unchanged. Find the new values of power angle, arm current and pf.

a) 28.690, 0.6194, 0.9687

b) 20.050, 0.7177, 0.836

Hunting
Satisfactory operation:
Pm=Pe with losses neglected and
Relative speed between stator and rotor field =0
Pe
Pm

Pe

Pm

Generator

Motor

If any power in changed then PmPe

and Pm-Pe=Pa Accelerating power

Consider motor
Connected to infinite bus and on no load
Vt
Vt
Ef

Ef
S

jIaXs

=0

Ia

Consider motor
Connected to infinite bus and on no load
Apply some load on shaft gradually.
Vt
Vt
Ef

Ef
S

Speed decreases gradually.

jIaXs

=0

Ia

Consider motor
Connected to infinite bus and on no load
Apply some load on shaft gradually.
Vt
Vt
Ef

Ef
S

jIaXs
Ef

=0

Ia1

Speed decreases gradually.

increases Power increases
Torque increases to drive load

Pm Pe

E f Vt
Xs

sin

No oscillation of rotor

Ia

Apply some load on shaft SUDDENLY.

Speed decreases suddenly. increases to 1 >
1 = +
E f Vt
E f Vt
sin 1 Speed increases
Pm
sin Pe
Xs
Xs
Vt E f
More
Less I aa21
Vt
Xs
Vt jI X
a s
Ef
Ef
=0
S N
S N
2

1
decreases to 2 < or 2 = , Pm > Pe Speed decreases
Pm < Pe Speed increases Pm > Pe Speed decreases
Rotor attains its equilibrium position

Pm = Pe

Ia

Mechanical oscillations

Vt
Vt
N

Ef

Ef

Ia

Electrical oscillations

The phenomena involving rotor oscillations about its final

equilibrium position is called HUNTING.
During hunting the orientation of phasor of Ef changes relative
Vt , therefore hunting is also called as PHASE-SWINGING.
Due to sudden application of load, rotor has to search for or hunt for
new equilibrium space position. So the name hunting.
In laboratory, hunting can be observed by wattmeter and ammeter
or by stroboscope, light falling on rotor shaft. At syn speed light appears
At syn speed light appears stationary.
In case of generator, if mechanical driving torque or electrical load is
changed suddenly, then there are rotor oscillations or hunting.

Hunting is objectionable.
The BAD effects are
1. It may cause the machine to fall out of step.
2. For generator, the output voltage fluctuates.
3. It causes great surges in current and power flow.
4. It increases machine losses and temperature.
5. It increases mechanical stresses and fatigue of the shaft.

The CAUSES of hunting

1. A sudden change in LOAD.
2. A FAULT in the supply system
3. A sudden change in FIELD current.
4. Load torque or prime Mover containing HARMONICS.
It can be GUARDED by
1. Using a FLYWHEEL.
2. Designing m/c with suitable synchronizing POWER coefficient
or STIFFNESS factor.
3. Providing DAMPER or ammortisseur winding.

Damper Winding
Consists of
Low resistance copper, brass or aluminium bars
embeded in slot of pole faces and
connected to short circuiting ring on both sides similar to SCIM.

Incomplete Type,
Non-connected or
Open Type

Complete Type or
Connected Type
Generally used

The salient pole circuit ie damper wdg, bolts and iron take part
in damping out the rotor hunting, is called amortisseur circuit.
Or these short circuited bars are also known as amortisseur
Winding.
This wdg serves dual purpose: 1. starting and 2. hunting.
A motor started on the principle of induction motor by means of
damper wdg is known as Synduction Motor
For zero relative speed, no damping torque is developed.
Damping torque is developed when speed departs from syn speed.

Relative speed =+10rpm.

Nr=1490rpm
Ns=1500rpm

Due to +10rpm, current is induced

in damper bars, suppose dot.
This current produces damping torque
This is induction motor torque
Speed increases, relative speed
becomes=0
Due to -10rpm, current is induced
in damper bars, suppose cross.

This current produces damping torque

Nr=1510rpm
Ns=1500rpm

This is induction generator torque

Speed decreases, relative speed
becomes=0
Thus damper wdg damps the
rotor oscillations or hunting

Xd

Can be obtained by 1. Slip Test 2. Isc oscillogram

3. OCC and SCC

Ef jIqXq

jIdXd

Ef jIdXd

Open ckt voltage = Ef

Now, Vt sin=IqXq
Under short circuit
condition, Vt=0

Iq

Vt
Ia

X q 0, I q 0,

Id=Isc

Id
Phasor diagram of salient
pole syn genr with ra=0

Phasor diagram under

Short circuit condn

Xd

Isc=Id+jIq=Id
From Fig. Ef=XdId

Xd

Ef
Id

Ef
I sc

Open Circuit Voltage E f for given I f

Short Circuit Current I sc for same I f

 I sc

K Md I f

Ld

I sc K1 I f

Voltage

OCC

Isc

AC
Xd

AB

SCC
If1

B
A
O

If1

If

Short Circuit Ratio

SCR is defined as the ratio of Field Current
(SCR)

required to generate rated voltage (Ef) on open circuit, to the

Field Current required to circulate rated armature current Iasc
on a 3-phase short circuit.

SCR

I f for rated OC voltage E f Voltage

I f for rated SC current I asc

OA

OD

Ef
rated

Iasc
rated

Now, X d

A
If1

Isc

SCC

OAB & ODE are similar

OA AB
SCR

OD DE

AC

AB

OCC

If1

D
If

 I asc

AC
1
AC
X d in pu

E
AB I f 1 Base Impedance AB I f 1 f
AC
DE
DE

AB
AC
AB

If1

OD
1

Voltage
Isc
OA
OA
OCC
OD
Ef
1

C
rated
SCR
SCC
Thus SCR is equal to the reciprocal of
per unit value of Xd
Iasc
rated
E
SCR is
B
1. Useful in obtaining an estimate of
operating characteristics
A
D
2. A measure of physical size of m/c
O
If1
If

Significance of SCR
a) LOW SCR
means high Xd
1. Ef= Vt+jIdXd More voltage variation, Poor voltage regulation
More If is required to maintain voltage constant.
2. Less Power and lower stability limit
3. Low synchronizing torque under disturbance
4. Low value of short circuit current (advantage)
b) HIGH SCR means low Xd
1. Better voltage regulation
2. More Power and better stability limit
3. High synchronizing torque under disturbance
4. High value of short circuit current (disadvantage)

Physical Size and Cost

For more air gap, Xd is less and SCR is more.
So, SCR is directly proportional to air gap length.
If air gap is doubled, Xd is halved Md is halved
For constant voltage, double If is required
Diameter of field winding is doubled.
More copper, more cost and more size
Thus overall size and cost are directly proportional to SCR
There is no effect on Iasc

I asc

Ef
Xd

Md I f

Ld

Md

If
Ld

K If

Same field current is required for rated Iasc.

But for same If , more turns of arm wdg are required for contant voltage
as per E f 4.44 f Tph K w
Thus more overall size and cost

Typical values of SCR

0.4 for synchronous condensor
0.5 to 0.8 for turbo-generator
1 to 1.4 for hydro-generator

Example
With the help of phasor diagram show that power input to a
Cylindrical rotor alternator, at lagging power factor is given by

Pi
where z tan 1

ra
Xs

E f Vt
Zs

sin( z )

and Zs=ra+jXs

Solution:
Pm is input power to generator

Ef

Zs

ra

Ef

jIaXs
Ia Z s

z Iara

So derive the eqn for Pm

Vt

Ia

Pm=Ef Ia

For Pm, take Ef as a reference

E f 0 Vt
Ia
Z s z
Pm

Ef

Zs

E f Vt

cos z

Zs

cos( z )

z z 90
Pm
Pm

Ef

Zs
Ef

cos z

Zs

Pm Pi

E f Vt
Zs

cos( z )

Ef

jIaXs
Ia Z s

E f Vt

ra

cos( 90 z )
Zs
Zs
Ef

Zs

ra

E f Vt
Zs

sin( z )

z Iara

Vt

Ia