The Digestive System

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood 2007 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning

Engineers in Physiology
In the 1950s, a chemical engineering professor, Edward Merrill of MIT,
was asked to help local doctors measure the viscosity of lung mucus
and human blood (a fluids viscosity is a measure of its thickness, or
resistance to flow, when exposed to stress).

Edward Merrill
Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood 2007 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning

Engineers in Physiology
In 1965, a variety of biocompatible plastics and composites were designed
by chemical engineers for use in prosthetic devices and replacement valves,
arteries and veins.
The development of the widely used kidney dialysis machine provides a
good example of the lifesaving synergies that can result when biomedical
researchers and chemical engineers work together.

Chemical engineer, Adam Heller developed a rapid,

micro-analytical technique requiring a much smaller
sample of blood than previous sampling techniques
just 300nL, which is about one-eighth of what a
mosquito draws when it bites a human being.
Engineers have built a continuous glucose monitor by
electrically wiring a glucose-reacting protein.
Adam Heller

Engineers in Physiology
Automatic insulin-injection pumps are computerized
device, which draw on well-established micropumping
techniques developed by chemical and mechanical
engineers, are typically the size of a pager and can be
carried on a belt or shirt pocket.
Work on microfluidic devices has provided fertile ground
for innovative collaboration between the chemical
engineering
and
biomedical
communities.
These
extremely small analytical devices (often called lab-ona-chip) are used to carry out various chemical,
biomedical and thermal reactions, measurements, and
An
organ-on-a-chip
a multi- speed, and reliability
analyses
with greaterisspecificity,
channel
3-D micro
fluidic cell
than conventional
macro-scaled
approaches.
culture chip that simulates the
activities,
mechanics
and
physiological response of entire
organs and organ systems. The
convergence of labs-on-chips and
cell biology has permitted the study
of human physiology in an organHuman Physiology
Lauralee Sherwood 2007 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning
specific context, introducing
a bynovel

Engineering Digestion
Just trying to take a drink or eat a meal in outer space can
be very challenging. Scientists and engineers who work for
NASA have designed special devices to help astronauts eat
-"Lunch in Outer Space.
Have you heard of astronaut ice cream or space ice
creamit was designed by Whirlpool Corporation under
contract to NASA for the Apollo missions.

On the way to SUPERFOODS..

The Human
Digestive System

The Digestive System

Digestive tract
Continuous from mouth to
anus
Consists of

Mouth
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum

Large intestine

Cecum
Appendix
Colon
Rectum

Anus

Accessory digestive organs

Salivary glands
Exocrine pancreas
Biliary system
Liver
Gallbladder

The Digestive Regimen

Overview of the Digestive System

The Digestive System

Primary function
Transfer nutrients, water, and electrolytes from
ingested food into bodys internal environment
Four functions
Motility
Secretion
Digestion
Absorption

Our Digestive System performs Chemical

Engineering
The guts of people function like industrial chemical
plants.
They are assemblies of tubes and tanks in which foods are
hydrolyzed by enzyme-catalyzed reactions, or fermented by
microorganisms.
Raw materials enter at one end, waste matter is voided at
the other, and valuable products are abstracted on the way.
A mill at the entrance end reduces the raw materials to
small fragments, enabling the reactions to proceed faster.
Teeth is like a grinding mill, and the digestive tube as a
chain of chemical reactors
Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood 2007 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning

EcoBot is short for Ecological Robot and it refers to a class of energetically

autonomous robots that can remain self-sustainable by collecting their energy from
material, mostly waste matter, in the environment.

Micro-robotic explorers, powered by microbial fuel

cells, could represent an efficient and reliable energy
source on a planet without human intervention

Digestive Tract
Wall has same general structure throughout length
from esophagus to anus
Four major tissue layers
Mucosa
Innermost layer

Submucosa
Muscularis externa
Serosa
Outer layer

Layers of Digestive Tract Wall

Mucosa
Lines luminal surface of digestive tract
Highly folded surface greatly increases absorptive area
Three layers
Mucous membrane
Serves as protective surface
Modified for secretion and absorption
Contains
Exocrine gland cells secrete digestive juices
Endocrine gland cells secrete blood-borne gastrointestinal hormones
Epithelial cells specialized for absorbing digestive nutrients

Lamina propria---loose connective tissue

Houses gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT)
Important in defense against disease-causing intestinal bacteria

Muscularis mucosa
Sparse layer of smooth muscle: it keeps the mucosal surface and
underlying glands in a constant state of gentle agitation to expel contents of
glandular crypts and enhance contact between epithelium and the contents of
the lumen.

The Digestive Epithelium

The oral cavity, pharynx, and esophagus (where mechanical stresses are most severe)
are lined by a stratified squamous epithelium, whereas the stomach, the small
intestine, and almost the entire length of the large intestine (where absorption occurs)
have a simple columnar epithelium.
The life span of a typical epithelial cell varies from two to three days in the esophagus
to up to six days in the large intestine. The lining of the entire digestive tract is
continuously renewed through the divisions of epithelial stem cells, keeping pace with
the rate of cell destruction and loss at epithelial surfaces.

Submucosa

Thick layer of connective tissue

Provides digestive tract with distensibility and elasticity
Contains larger blood and lymph vessels
Contains nerve network known as sub-mucosal plexus
(Meissners Plexus)innervates the mucosal epithelial
layer and glands---para-sympathetic stimulation

Muscularis Externa
Major smooth muscle coat of digestive tube
In most areas consists of two layers
Circular layer
Inner layer
Contraction decreases diameter of lumen

Longitudinal layer
Outer layer
Contraction shortens the tube

Contractile activity produces propulsive and mixing

movements
Myenteric/Auerbachs plexus
Lies between the two muscle layers: provides motor
innervations to both layers of the tunica muscularis, having
both parasympathetic and sympathetic input.

Serosa
Secretes serous fluid
Lubricates and prevents friction between
digestive organs and surrounding viscera
Continuous with mesentery throughout much of the
tract
Attachment provides relative fixation
Supports digestive organs in proper place while
allowing them freedom for mixing and propulsive
movements

Regulation of Digestive System

Digestive motility and secretion are regulated by

Autonomous smooth muscle function (Pacesetter

Cells): slow wave (BER)
Intrinsic nerve plexuses
Extrinsic nerves
Gastrointestinal hormones

Pacesetter Cells
Pacesetter cells (Cajal)-generate slow wave potentials, the
GIs basic electrical rhythm (BER), wavelike fluctuations in
membrane potential, transmitted throughout smooth muscle via
gap junctions
Threshold is reached by the effect of various mechanical,
neural and hormonal factors in GI tract
These smooth muscle cells undergo spontaneous contraction
that triggers a wave of contraction that spreads through the
entire muscular sheet. Pacesetter cells are located in the
muscularis mucosae and muscularis externa, the layers of
which surround the lumen of the digestive tract. The coordinated
contractions of the muscularis externa play a vital role in the
movement of materials along the tract, through peristalsis and in
mechanical processing, through segmentation .

Points to remember

Pacesetter Cells do not initiate an action potential

Why an anti-cholinergic drug like, antihistamines cause constipation?

They are also prescribed for depression & sleep
disorders and gastro intestinal cramps

In GI tract Parasympathetic NS plays

major role.Sympathetic NS.acts
only under extreme stress

Rest and Digest

Summary of Pathways Controlling Digestive

System Activities

Motility
Motility
Muscular contractions that mix and move forward
the contents of the digestive tract
Two types of digestive motility
Propulsive movements
Push contents forward through the digestive tract

Mixing movements
Serve two functions
Mixing food with digestive juices promotes digestion of
foods
Facilitates absorption by exposing all parts of intestinal
contents to absorbing surfaces of digestive tract

Motility--Peristalsis
The patterns of GI contraction as a whole can be
divided into Peristalsis and Segementation.
Peristalsis occurs as a series of peristaltic wave
cycles in distinct phases starting with relaxation,
followed by an increasing level of activity to a peak
level of peristaltic activity lasting for 515 minutes.
This cycle repeats every 1.52 hours but is
interrupted by food ingestion.
The role of this process is likely to clean excess
bacteria and food from the digestive system.
Peristalsis occurs during and shortly after a meal.
The contractions occur in wave patterns traveling
down short lengths of the GI tract from one section to
the next. The contractions occur directly behind
the bolus of food that is in the system, forcing it
toward the anus into the next relaxed section of
smooth muscle.

Motility--Segmentation
Segmentation also occurs during
and shortly after a meal within short
lengths in segmented or random
patterns along the intestine. This
process

is

carried

out

by

longitudinal muscles relaxing while

circular

muscles

contract

at

alternating sections thereby mixing

the food. This mixing allows food
and digestive enzymes to maintain
a uniform composition, as well as
to

ensure

contact

with

the

epithelium for proper absorption.

This is the same kind of muscular

movement that allows worms to move

Peristalsis and Segmentation

initiated by pacemaker cells in small intestine
which produce basic electrical rhythm (BER)
Circular smooth muscle responsiveness is
influenced by distension of intestine, gastrin, and
extrinsic nerve activity
Functions
Mixing chyme with digestive juices secreted into small
intestine lumen
Exposing all chyme to absorptive surfaces of small
intestine mucosa

Migrating motility complex

Sweeps intestines clean between meals

MotilityDiseased Condition
In normal digestion, food content is propelled through the digestive
tract by rhythmic and coordinated contractions or propulsions
called peristalsis.
When someone suffers from a digestive motility disorder, peristalsis
becomes impaired resulting in slow contractions, rapid contractions, or
having a combination of both slow and fast contractions. In some
cases, peristalsis may be totally absent.
Some people affected by motility disorders may be underweight.
Digestive motility diseases is generally secondary, when the motility
problem occurs as a result of a disease or medical condition.
Examples of secondary causes include, diabetes, Parkinson's
Disease, endocrine disorders, neurological disorders, laxative
abuse, and abdominal surgery.

Muscles contract in waves to move the food down the

oesophagus. This means that food would get to a
person's stomach, even if they were standing on their
head

What happens if a large chunk of food

gets stuck in esophagus

Why does your stomach Rumble/Growl

People who eat on very regular schedules may be more

susceptible to this RUMBLING. For example if the
stomach receives food at noon every day, then the body
will expect food at noon, whether food is present or not.
Make sure you eat a HEALTHY breakfast so that your
body doesn't run low on fuel (energy) before lunchtime.

Todays Scenario

It takes your mouth, esophagus, stomach,

small intestine, large intestine, gallbladder,
pancreas and liver just to digest a glass of
milk.

Saliva

Saliva
Produced largely by three major pairs of salivary glands
Composition
99.5% H2O
0.5% electrolytes and protein (amylase, mucus, lysozyme)
Functions
Salivary amylase begins digestion of carbohydrates
Facilitates swallowing by moistening food
Mucus provides lubrication and Antibacterial action

Salivary Glands
Salivary glands (3 pairs) - parotid,
sublingual, and submandibular;
produce saliva
Stimulated by thought of food or
ingested food
There is constant low level of
secretion
Basal Rate 0.5ml/min
The rate depends on quantity of
food.

Control of Salivary Secretion

Control of Salivary Secretion

Salivary Buffering
Saliva contains phosphate which is capable of buffering the
pH.
Phosphate is a good buffer and phosphate salts are widely
used in science to prepare buffer solution. However, although we
think of saliva as containing a lot of phosphate it just does not
contain enough to allow it to be really effective in vivo.
This leaves us with bicarbonate which is often referred to as the
major buffer of saliva. In mouth, bicarbonate acts mainly to
neutralize acid.
The normal, resting, pH of the mouth does not fall much
below about pH 6.3 and the reason for this is the
bicarbonate.

Chapter 16 The Digestive System

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood 2007 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning

Chapter 16 The Digestive System

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood 2007 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning

Stomach

Three main functions

Store ingested food until it can be emptied into small intestine
Secretes hydrochloric acid (HCl) and enzymes that begin
protein digestion. It has a pH of 1.5 to 3.5.
Pyloric sphincter
Serves as barrier between stomach and upper part of small
intestine. Why do you need it??

Has food digestion started before

reaching stomach?

Heartburn

Gastric Motility
Four aspects
Filling
Involves Receptive Relaxation
Enhances stomachs ability to accommodate the extra
volume of food with little rise in stomach pressure
Triggered by act of eating
Mediated by Vagus nerve

Storage
Takes place in body/fundus of stomach ???
Mixing
Takes place in antrum of stomach

Emptying
Largely controlled by factors in duodenum

Gastric Emptying and Mixing as a Result of

Antral Peristaltic Contractions

Gastric Emptying
Factors in stomach
Amount of chyme in stomach is main factor that influences
strength of contraction
Factors in duodenum
Fat
Fat digestion and absorption takes place only within lumen of small
intestine
When fat is already in duodenum, further gastric emptying of
additional fatty stomach contents is prevented

Acid
Un-neutralized acid in duodenum inhibits further emptying of acidic
gastric contents until neutralization can be accomplished

Hypertonicity
Gastric emptying is reflexly inhibited when osmolarity of duodenal
contents starts to rise.

Distension
Too much chyme in duodenum inhibits emptying of even more gastric
contents

Gastric Emptying
Factors trigger either
Neural response
Mediated through both intrinsic nerve plexuses (short reflex)
and autonomic nerves (long reflex)
Collectively called enterogastric reflex

Additional factors that influence gastric motility

Emotions
Sadness and fear tend to decrease motility
Anger and aggression tend to increase motility

Intense pain tends to inhibit motility

Gastric Secretions
Two distinct areas of gastric mucosa that secrete gastric juice
Oxyntic mucosa
Lines body and fundus
Pyloric gland area (PGA)
Lines the antrum
Gastric glands at base of gastric pits Three types of gastric exocrine secretory cells
Mucous cells
Line gastric pits and entrance of glands
Secrete thin, watery mucus
Chief cells
Secrete enzyme precursor, Pepsinogen (???)
Parietal (oxyntic) cells
Secretes HCl????
Collectively they make Gastric Juice

HCl and its Role

Functions of HCl
Activates pepsinogen to active enzyme pepsin and
provides acid medium for optimal pepsin activity
Aids in breakdown of connective tissue and muscle
fibers
Denatures protein
Along with salivary lysozyme, kills most of the
microorganisms ingested with food.

Gastrointestinal Secretions

Hormonal Regulation
Vagus stimulation and Act stimulates
parietal and chief cells.
G cells are stimulated by vagal
stimulation through gastrin-releasing
peptide; this causes the G cells to
secrete gastrin, which in turn not only
directly stimulates parietal cells but
through ECL cells to release
histamine.
These cells are stimulated by the
hormone gastrin.

Histamine
and
gastrin
act
synergistically as the most important
stimulators of HCL secretion from
parietal cells and stimulators of
secretion of pepsinogen from chief
cells.

The Stomach
Lining

The stomach is exposed to the harshest conditions in the digestive tract

To keep from digesting itself, the stomach has a mucosal barrier with:
A thick coat of bicarbonate-rich mucus on the stomach wall
Epithelial cells that are joined by tight junctions
Gastric glands that have cells impermeable to HCl
Damaged epithelial cells are quickly replaced.
If the rate of destruction is too high, the acid and pepsin may destroy underlying tissues of
the stomach wall, causing an ulcer.

What is happening here

Hundreds of different kinds of enzymes are needed to

properly digest food. Cooking destroys food enzymes,
forcing the body to make its own. Over time the body
may tire of this extra work, leaving room for possible
indigestion.

Vitamin B and K are released; prevents

inflammation; strengthens epithelial barrier

Pancreas
Mixture of exocrine and endocrine tissue
Elongated gland located behind and below the
stomach
Endocrine function
Islets of Langerhans
Found throughout pancreas
Secrete insulin and glucagon

Exocrine function
Secretes pancreatic juice consisting of
Pancreatic enzymes actively secreted by acinar cells
that form the acini
Aqueous alkaline solution actively secreted by duct
cells that line pancreatic ducts

Regulatory Control of Pancreas Exocrine

Secretion

Acid in
duodenal
lumen

Fat and protein

products in
duodenal lumen

Secretin release
from duodenal
mucosa

CCK release
from duodenal
mucosa

(secretin
carried
by blood)

Neutralizes

(CCK carried
by blood)

Pancreatic duct
cells

Pancreatic acinar
cells

Secretion of aqueous
NaHCO3 solution into
duodenal lumen

Secretion of
pancreatic digestive
enzymes into
duodenal lumen

Digests

Intestinal Hormones
Secretin
Presence of acid in duodenum stimulates release
Functions
Inhibits gastric emptying in order to prevent further acid
from entering duodenum until acid already present is
neutralized
Inhibits gastric secretion to reduce amount of acid being
produced
Stimulates pancreatic duct cells to produce large volume of
aqueous NaHCO3 secretion
Stimulates liver to secrete NaCO3 rich bile which assists in
neutralization process
Along with CCK, is trophic to exocrine pancreas

Intestinal Hormones
CCK
Functions
Inhibits gastric motility and secretion
Stimulates pancreatic acinar cells to increase secretion
of pancreatic enzymes
Implicated in long-term adaptive changes in proportion of
pancreatic enzymes in response to prolonged diet changes
Important regulator of food intake

Pancreatic Enzymes
Exocrine secretion is regulated by
Secretin
CCK
Proteolytic enzymes
Digest protein
Trypsinogen - converted to active form trypsin
Chymotrypsinogen converted to active form chymotrysin
Procarboxypeptidase converted to active form
carboxypeptidase

Pancreatic amylase
Converts polysaccharides into the disaccharide amylase
Pancreatic lipase
Only enzyme secreted throughout entire digestive
system that can digest fat

Pancreatitis

Pancreatitis

Why you shouldnt drink water while you

eat..

Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates

Why glucose is not taken up by the

intestinal cells themselves

Are proteins transported/absorbed as

amino-acids only????

Digestion and Absorption of Proteins

What are the transporters required for fat

absorption?

Liver
Largest and most important metabolic organ in the body
Bodys major biochemical factory
Importance to digestive system secretion of bile salts

Liver
Bile
Actively secreted by liver and actively diverted to gallbladder between meals
Stored and concentrated in gallbladder
Consists of

Bile salts
Cholesterol
Lecithin
Bilirubin

After meal, bile enters duodenum

Bile salts
Derivatives of cholesterol
Convert large fat globules into a liquid emulsion
After participation in fat digestion and absorption, most are reabsorbed into the blood

Pancreatic Lipases

Digestion and Absorption of Fats

Who are the ferries in your fat

digestion???

Where are the chylomicrons formed

inside the cells?
Why cant they enter the blood vessels?

Why do we feel sleepy after eating

How does the body absorb vitamins?

The small intestine is where vitamin absorption happens (along with most other
types of absorption). Water-soluble vitamins, such as vitamin C, have "active
transports" for absorption -- molecules that pick them up in the small intestine,
in a section called the jejunum.
The B vitamins are also water-soluble and need to be replenished every day,
although their absorption works a bit differently. They're bound to proteins and
therefore require a protein breakdown triggered by stomach acids. Absorption of
most of the B vitamins happens further down in the small intestine, in the ileum.
The other type of vitamin, the fat-soluble ones such as A, D, E and K, need
to dissolve in fat before they can make it into the body. The process requires
fat-digesting bile acids that come from the liver and live in the small intestine.
When the bile acids break down the fat the vitamins are dissolved in, the
vitamins move with the fat through the intestinal wall, into the body, and finally
end up in the liver and in body fat, where they're stored until they're needed
(much like fat).

Trypsin: cleaves peptide bonds on the carboxyl side of basic amino acids (lysine and arginine)
Chymotrypsin: cleaves peptide bonds on the carboxyl side of aromatic amino acids (tryosine,
phenylalanine and tryptophan)
Carboxypeptidases: zinc-containing metallo-enzymes that remove single amino acids from
the carboxyl-terminal ends of proteins and peptides.

Small Intestine
Site where most digestion and absorption (95%)
take place
Three segments
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
Motility includes
Segmentation
Migrating motility complex

Chapter 16 The Digestive System

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood 2007 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning

Large Intestine
Primarily a drying and storage organ
Consists of
Colon
Cecum
Appendix
Rectum
Contents received from small intestine consists of
indigestible food residues, unabsorbed biliary
components, and remaining fluid
Colon
Extracts more water and salt from contents
Feces what remains to be eliminated

Large Intestine

Chapter 16 The Digestive System

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood 2007 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning

Large Intestine
Mass movements
Massive contractions
Moves colonic contents into distal part of large intestine
Gastrocolic reflex
Mediated from stomach to colon by gastrin and by
autonomic nerves
Most evident after first meal of the day
Often followed by urge to defecate
Defecation reflex
Initiated when stretch receptors in rectal wall are stimulated
by distension
Causes internal anal sphincter to relax and rectum and
sigmoid colon to contract more vigorously
If external anal sphincter (skeletal muscle under voluntary
control) is also relaxed, defecation occurs