MANAGEMENT AND

CONTROL
OF FUSARIUM WILT
OR PANAMA DISEASE
OF BANANA

Introduction
Management of Fusarium wilt diseases depends on
the integration of different control strategies, since no single
method is fully effective on its own. These strategies
concentrate on lowering the amount of inoculum in a field,
while enhancing plant vigor and disease tolerance.
The most effective method for control of wilt diseases is the
use of resistant plants, when they are available.
Since the discovery of Fusarium wilt of banana, various
control methods have been attempted to curb the damage
caused by the disease

Management Strategies
1. Biological Control
can be achieved by means of a direct or
indirect interaction between the control
agent and the pathogen.
Direct biocontrol - achieved when control agent
reduces the pathogen population through
antagonistic mechanisms:

Parasitism- a parasite attacks the mycelium and spores

of the fungus

Antibiosis - production of toxic metabolites by an

organism that may reduce or prevent germination of
fungal propagules, invoke lysis, or inhibit growth after
germination

Competition -for nutrients or competition for space

occurs at the infection site

Indirect biocontrol - occurs when the control agent

interacts with the pathogen through the host; also

referred to as induced resistance or cross protection and
is based on the induction of the hosts own defense
system

Biocontrol agents
Fungi
1. Trichoderma spp.
2. Gliocladium spp.
3. Non-pathogenic Fusarium oxysporum
a. competition for nutrients
b. competition for infection sites
c. induced resistance caused by
non-pathogenic isolates
4. Arbuscular Mycorrhizae

Bacteria

Machanisms involved in suppression of

Fusarium wilt:
A.

B.

competition for iron (Fe) through the production of

siderophores which bind to Fe available in the soil so that
it becomes unavailable to the pathogen. Fe deficiency
leads to inhibition of chlamydospore germination and
hyphal growth.

Inducing natural resistance in plants usually

associated with ultra-structural cell wall modifications
that prevent invasion of the pathogen, followed by
biochemical changes like accumulation of pathogenesisrelated proteins and /or phytoalexins

2. Chemical controlyielded variable degrees

of success.
Divided into the following categories:
A. Fungicides
- Mercury compounds
- Carbendazim
- Phosphonate fungicides

Fungicides
Chemical group

Actrive Ingredient

1. Benzimidazole
Benomyl
2.Copper compounds
Copper oxychloride
3. DMI-imidazole
Prochloraz
4. DMI-triazole
Cyproconazole/propiconazole
5. DMI-triazole
Propiconazole
6. Phosphorus acid
Phosetyl-Al
7. Phthlalimide
Captab
8. Strobilurins
Azoxystrobin
9. Strobilurins
Kresoxim-methyl

Formulttion
Type
% Active
ingredient
WP
WP
EC
EC
EC
WP
Gran
EC

500g/kg
850g/kg
450g/l
330g/l
250g/l
200g/l
500g/kg
500g/kg
500g/kg

B. Surface sterilants
Disinfecting Foc-infested soil on a small scale by
drenching with copper sulphate, carbolineum and
formaldehyde unsuccessful and
expensive.

Previous studies conducted on

disinfectants showed that carbon disulphide was
ineffective and formalin gave unreliable results,
although it reduced the population of Foc in the soil.

The application of surface disinfectants is more

effective and appropriate for the cleaning of
equipment, shoes and machinery.

Surface sterilants
Trade name
Chloride
Clean Green
Cupravit
Desogerm

Farmcleanse

Active ingredient
Ca-hypochloride
Non-ammonium compound
Copper oxychloride
Biquanidine and quaternary
ammonium compound
Quaternary ammonium compound

Trade name
Jik
Prazin agri

Omega
Sporekill

Active ingredient
Sodium hypochloride
Polymeric biquanidine
hydrochloride and quaternary
ammonium compound
Prochloraz
Poly dimethyl ammonium chloride

C. Plant activators
the most thoroughly investigated chemical
inducers are those interfering with the salicylic acid
(SA) pathway, such as 2,6- dichloroisonicotinic acid (INA)
and benzo-(1,2,3) thiadiazole-7-carbothioic acid S-methyl
ester (BTH) commercially known as Bion.
Other potential resistance-activating chemicals:
-D,L- - aminobutyric acid (BABA)
- Ethylene or ethylene-releasing compounds
- Harpin

Chemical activators evaluated

Chemical activator
Bion

Active ingredient

Benzo-(1,2,3) thiadiazole-7carbothioic acid S-methyl ester (BTH)

BABA
DL-3-amino-n-butonoic acid (BABA)
Ethapon
Ethepon
Methyl jasmonic acid
Methyl Jasmonic Acid (MeJA)
Messenger
Harpin protein (Hrp)
Param
Indole acetic acid (IAA)
Menadione Sodium Bisulfite
Menadione Sodium Bisulfite
(MSB)
Sodium nitroprusside
Sodium nitroprusside (SNP)

3. Cultural control
- considered one of the most
important approaches for the
management of Fusarium wilt
disease.
- environmentally friendly
- affordable
-based on the exclusion of pathogen
- reduction of pathogen effect and
- the enhancement of plant vigor and
resistance

Previous Research
TISSUE CULTURE BANANAS

Prevent the spread of Fusarium wilt

More vulnerable to Panama disease if planted in Focinfested fields (Smith et al., 1998)

QUARANTINE AND SANITATION

Legislation
Deacon(1984) recommendations
-killing infected plants with herbicide application
- fencing area off - digging trench around area
- effective surface sterilants

FLOOD-FALLOWING
promising results in 1960s
Cpmplete eradication not achieved
Combined with chemical treatment-significant reduction
in disease development
Speculated that flood fallowing destroyed the natural
suppressiveness of the soil

CROP ROTATION
Long- term control of Panama disease cannot be
achieved through crop rotation (Stover,1962)

Sequeira(1958)
velvet beans
sorghum

Sequeira (1962)
sugarcane +
fallow rotations

sugarcane

decrease in disease
- not sufficient

reduced disease

Hwang (1985)

Meng et al. (1999)

Sugarcane

Intercropping with oil

palm

sunflowers
paddy-rice

No reduction
in disease

Considered as a
control
measurement in
Taiwan
(short term
control)

Lower disease
incidence

SOIL AMENDMENTS AND FERTILIZERS

Series of fertilizer experiments - (Knudson,1923-1927;

Butler,1960)

sodium nitrate- (Meredith,1941)

inorganic fertilizers, green manure,lime,compost,bagasse(Rishbeth& Naylor,1957)

Ca or organic matter - ( Ploetz et al., 1990)

CaCO3; Ca (OH)2; Ca SO4;Fe-EDDHA; bagasse - (Peng et al.,

1999)

Table 2.1. The effect of various plant nutrients on Fusarium wilt

diseases and pathogens as found by previous researchers
Nutrient
K

Effect on Disease
Higher in suppressive soils
Added K reduces disease

References
Peng et al., 1999;
Tharp & Wadleigh, 1939

P+
Lime

Reduced disease incidence

Woltz & Jones, 1973

Mg

Higher in suppressive soils

Peng et al., 1999

Mn, Zn

Deficiency reduces disease

Jones & Woltz, 1967, 1969

Fe

Na

Decreased Fe availability increased soil

suppressiveness and reduced chlamydospore
germination
Fe- DTPA significantly higher in decreased
Higher in suppressive soils

Scher & Baker, 1982;

Peng et al., 1999
Dominguez et al., 1995,
1996
Dominguez et al., 1996,
2001; Peng et al., 1999

Nutrient

Effect on Disease

NO3-

Increasing NO3- application decreased disease

development

NH4+

Increasing NH4+ increased disease development

Soil pH

Lime
and Ca

pH near least optimal for Fusarium wilt;

Soil pH higher in suppressive soils;
Higher pH reduced number of plant infections

Limimg increased soil suppressiveness;

Liming increased number of Foc CFUs;
Liming results in reduced chlamydospore
germination

References
Huber &Watson, 1974;
Jones et al., 1989;
Woltz & Jones,1981
Dominguez et al., 1996
Woltz & Jones, 1981
Woltz & Jones, 1981;
Dominguez et al., 2001;
Duskova & Prokinova,
1989

Hper et al., 1995;

Peng et al., 1999

4. Host resistance
- proven most effective
- in most agricultural crops,
resistance in plants can be bred for
- in the absence of seeds, such
resistance can only be introduced through
unconventional improvement techniques
like somaclonal variation or genetic
transformation

A. Natural resistance
- to most microorganisms exists in all
plants; however, certain microorganisms of
a plant and cause disease.
- in banana plants, resistance to races
of Foc exists in some cultivars, wild species
and synthetic diploids developed through
breeding programs.
- the pathogen infects both resistant
and tolerant cultivars, and host resistance is
only expressed after infection.

- the success of resistance responses will

depend on the rate and extent of host
responses.
- in banana, this response is based on the
ability of plants to produce phenolics,
deposit lignin, and increase enzymes
involved in cell wall strengthening in the
tolerant cultivar.

B. Plant Breeding
- in banana this is difficult because
the process is slow and the number of
fertile seeds obtained is extremely low.
Four banana breediing programs exist at
the following:

FHIA - Honduras
EMBRAPA-CNPMF - Brazil
IITA - Nigeria
CIRAD - FLHOR - Guadaloupe

C. Unconventional improvement
- natural somatic mutations in banana have been

observed since the development of micropropagation

techniques for banana using meristem cultures.
- variants can be grouped into changes in
plant stature, leaf morphology, pseudostem color
and bunch characteristics

- Taiwan Banana Research Institute (TBRI)

resistant clones have been successfully selected from
somaclonal variants since 1983.

- in addition to the somaclonal variation, mutation

breeding can be achieved by:
a. exposing plant tissue to irradiation
and chemical mutagens.
- plant improvement can combine in vitro techniques
with biotechnological techniques like protoplast fusion or
genetic transformation.
- Protoplasts under stable conditions can form clusters
that develop into callus, which in turn can be used to
regenarate plants through protoplast fusion. Using this
technique, triploid banana plants can be formed by the
fusion of a diploid banana cell with a monoploid banana
cell.

Transformation of bananas have been

achieved through particle bombardment and
Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated
transformation.

- Genetic improvement offers the potential to

generate a banana plant with resistance to
Fusarium wilt and other important diseases

Soil Suppressive to Fusarium Wilt of Banana

Suppressive soils are soils in which disease severity
is reduced despite the presence of the pathogen,
susceptible host and favorable environmental
conditions.

First observed in Central America (1922)

Occurs worldwide
Determined by time from planting to plant death
Either enhance plant health or suppress pathogen
Suppressiveness results from :
- soil physical structure
- Nutritional status/chemical composition
- Microbial composition

Soil biological composition:

Fungi
Bacteria
Actinomycetes

Soil Physical composition:

Sandy vs. clay soils

Drainage
Montmorillonite soils
pH

Soil chemical composition:

- Macronutrients
- Micronutrients
- Organic amendments
APPLICATION OF SUPPRESSIVE SOILS TO MANAGE
FUSARIUM WILT OF BANANA
Manipulation of soil structure:
-Proper field preparation
Manipulation of plant nutrition:
Macro: N,K,S
Micro: Fe, Zn, B, Si
Organic material

Manipulation of rhizosphere microbial

status:
Fungi - Non-pathogenic Foc., Trichoderma spp.
Bacteria - Flourescent Pseudomonas, Basillus

Recommendations
1. Prevent the introduction of Fusarium wilt into
disease- free farms/ fields

Honoring quarantine regulations

Using tissue culture banana plants

Water baths with disinfectants and restriction signboards

Clean all machinery, equipment and tools used in

potential diseased fields

2. Early Identification and isolation of new

outbreaks

Contact knowledgeable plant pathologist immediately if

you expect Fusarium wilt outbreak

Isolate infection sites by digging trenches and fencing-off

the area

Control all movement of people into the infected site

3. For severely infected fields, NO

management strategy exists

4. An integrated disease management strategy

can be developed

Biological control organisms

Chemical and biological elicitors of plant systemic

resistance responses

Improving plant health status by effective plant nutrition

Manipulating the soil environment for reduced pathogen

activity

Use of potential Fusarium wilt tolerant plants