UNIT-2

Sub-Titles
1. Fracture
2. Creep
3. Fatigue

FRACTURE-DEFINITION
Afractureis the (local) separation of an object
or material into two, or more, pieces under the
action ofstress.
The wordfractureis often applied tobonesof
living creatures (that is, abone fracture), or
tocrystalsor crystalline materials, such
asgemstonesormetal.

Types Of Fractures

Diagram 1 : Brittle Fractures of Glass

Diagram 2 : Ductile Fractures of an arm

DUCTILE FRACTURE
The term Fracture is defined as a
single body being separated into pieces
by an imposed stress.

The main difference between brittle and ductile fracture are the
amount ofplastic deformationthat the material undergoes
before fracture occurs.
Ductile materials demonstrate large amounts of plastic
deformation while brittle materials show little or no plastic
deformation before fracture.

DUCTILE & BRITTLE FRACTURE

Crack initiation and propagation are essential to
fracture.
In ductile materials, the crack moves slowly
along with the huge amount of plastic
deformation.
The crack will usually not extend unless an
increased stress is applied.

DUCTILE & BRITTLE FRACTURE

Inbrittle fracture, cracks spread
very rapidly with little or no plastic
deformation.
The cracks that propagate in a brittle material will
continue to grow and increase in magnitude once
they are initiated.
A crack that passes through the grains within the
material is called astransgranular fracture.
A crack that propagates along the grain boundaries is
termed anintergranular fracture.

Figure (Above) shows a scanning electron fractograph of ductile

cast iron, examining a transgranular fracture surface.

DUCTILE & BRITTLE

FRACTURE

On both macroscopic and microscopic levels,

ductile fracture surfaces have distinct features.
Macroscopically, ductile fracture surfaces have
larger necking regions and an overall rougher
appearance than a brittle fracture surface.
Figure (above) shows the macroscopic
differences between two ductile specimens(a,b)
and the brittle specimen (c).

MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE
(DUCTILE MATERIALS)
On the microscopic level, ductile fracture
surfaces also appear rough and irregular. The
surface consists of many microvoids and
dimples.

STAGES OF CUP & CONE FRACTURE

1. Small Micro-void Formation in the interior surface

2. Propagation of Deformation, the Enlargement of microvoids to form a crack, Lateral Spreading of crack towards
the edge of the specimen.

3. Finally, crack Propogation makes about a 45 degree

angle with the tensile stress axis.

STAGES OF CUP & CONE FRACTURE..

4. The final shearing of the specimen produces a cup type
shape on one fracture surface and a cone shape on the
adjacent connecting fracture surface, hence the name, cup
and cone fracture.
5. Figure (below) shows cup and cone, and brittle fracture in
aluminum.

CHARPY AND IZOD TESTS

The Charpy and Izod tests measure the impact
energy of a specimen.
By using an apparatus and impacting a
specimen with a weighted pendulum hammer
the impact energy can be measured.
A primary use of the Charpy and Izod tests is to
determine if a material experiences brittle to
ductile transition with decreasing temperature.
Brittle to ductile transition is directly related to
the temperature dependency of the impact
energy absorbed.

CHARPY AND IZOD TESTS..

After examining the failure surface,
we can identify the visual properties
of both brittle and ductile fracture,
then the transition is evident at
that temperature range.
There is a fairly wide range of
temperatures that support brittle
to ductile transition. So, it is impossible
to predict any one temperature as
the transition temperature.
(In figure (above), a graph is given that determines brittle to ductile transition through an
impact test for a 1018 hot-rolled steel.)

ADVANTAGES OF DUCTILE FRACTURE

OVER BRITTLE FRACTURE
1. First and foremost, brittle fracture occurs
very rapidly and catastrophically without any
warning. Ductile materials plastically deform,
thereby slowing the process of fracture and
giving ample time for the problem to be
corrected.

2. Second, because of the plastic deformation,

more
strain energy is needed to cause ductile fracture.

ADVANTAGES OF DUCTILE FRACTURE

OVER BRITTLE FRACTURE
3. Next, ductile materials are considered to be
"forgiving" materials, because of their toughness you
can
make a mistake in the use, design of a ductile
material
and still the material will probably not fail.
4. Also, the properties of a ductile material can be
enhanced through the use of one of the
strengthening
mechanisms. Strain hardening is a perfect example,

ADVANTAGES OF DUCTILE FRACTURE

OVER BRITTLE FRACTURE
5. Therefore, in engineering applications,
especially those
that have safety concerns involved, ductile
materials are
the obvious choice.

Back

BRITTLE FRACTURE
Brittle fracture is a rapid run of cracks through a

stressed material.
In most cases, this is the worst type of fracture

because you can't repair visible damage in a

part or structure before it breaks.
In brittle fracture, the cracks runs perpendicular

to the applied stress. This perpendicular

fracture leaves a relatively flat surface at the
break.

BRITTLE FRACTURE
PATTERNS.
Some brittle materials have lines and ridges, beginning at the
origin of the crack and spreading out across the crack surface.

Other materials, like some steels have back to back V-shaped

markings pointing to the origin of the crack are called as
chevrons.
Very hard or fine grained materials have no special pattern
and amorphous materials like ceramic glass have shiny
smooth fracture surfaces.

IMAGES OF BRITTLE FRACTURE

Diagram-1 : CHEVRON FRACTURE SURFACE

Diagram-2 : RADIATING RIDGE SURFACE

BRITTLE FRACTURE-TYPES
In trans-granular fracture, the fracture travels through
the grain of the material.

The fracture changes direction from grain to grain due

to the different lattice orientation of atoms in each grain.

When the crack reaches a new grain, it may have to find

a new path or plane of atoms to travel on because it is
easier to change direction for the crack than it is to rip
through.
Cracks choose the path of least resistance.

IMAGES
TRANS-GRANULAR IMAGE

INTER-GRANULAR IMAGE

DUCTILE TO BRITTLE
TRANSITION
In fracture, there are many
shades of gray

Basically, at higher temperatures

the yield strength is lowered and the

fracture is more ductile in nature.

On the opposite end, at lower temperatures the yield

strength is greater and the fracture is more brittle in nature.

DUCTILE TO BRITTLE TRANSITION

1. As temperature increases. (DUCTILE FRACTURE)
the atoms in the material vibrates with greater frequency & amplitude
It allows the atoms under stress to slip to new places in the material
( i.e. break bonds and form new ones (Plastic deformation) with other
atoms in the material).
As temperature decreases (BRITTLE FRACTURE)
Atom vibration decreases, and the atoms do not want to slip to new
locations in the material.
So when the stress on the material becomes high enough, the atoms
just break their bonds and do not form new ones.
This decrease in slippage causes little plastic deformation before
fracture. Thus, we have a brittle type fracture.

DUCTILE TO BRITTLE TRANSITION

At moderate temperatures (with respect to the

material) the material exhibits characteristics of both
(Ductile & Brittle) types of fracture.
2. Another factor that determines the fracture that occurs in a
material is dislocation density.
The higher the dislocation density, the more brittle the fracture
will be in the material.
As dislocations increase in a material due to stresses above the
materials yield point, it becomes increasingly difficult for the
dislocations to move because they pile into each other.
So a material that already has a high dislocation density can only
deform fractures are in a brittle manner.

DUCTILE TO BRITTLE TRANSITION

3. The last factor is grain size.
As grains get smaller in a material, the fracture becomes
more brittle. This phenomena is do to the fact that in
smaller grains, dislocations have less space to move before
they hit a grain boundary.
When dislocations can not move very far before fracture,
then plastic deformation decreases. Thus, the material's
fracture is more brittle.

CASE STUDY 1

CASE STUDY-1

CREEP DEFINITION
Inmaterials science,creepis the
tendency of a solid material to slowly
move or deform permanently under the influence
ofstresses.
It occurs as a result of long term exposure to high levels
of stress that are below thematerial yield strength.
Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected
toheatfor long periods, and near melting point.
Creep always increases with temperature.

CREEP

The rate of this deformation

is a function of the
Material properties,
Exposure time,
Exposuretemperature
Appliedstructural load.

Based on the magnitude

of the applied stress and its

duration, the deformation will be
large for an component. For eg. Creep of a
turbine blade will cause the blade to
contact the casing.

CREEP PROPERTIES

Unlike brittle fracture, creep deformation does not occur suddenly while
applying stress. Instead,strainaccumulates as a result of long-term
stress. Creep is a "time-dependent" deformation.

The temperature range in which creep deformation may occur differs in

various materials.

Tungstenrequires a High temperature( in the thousands of degrees)

before creep deformation can occur while ice will creep near 0 C (32
F).
As a Thumb rule, the effects of creep deformation usually initiated at

30% of themelting pointfor metals(Ref: Thermodynamic

temperaturescale)
For Ceramics, 4050% of melting point.
For Plastics and low-melting-temperature metals (solders), creep at

room temperature as can be seen markedly in oldleadhot-water

pipes.(Glacierflow is an example of creep processes in ice.)

STAGES OF CREEP
In the initial stage, or primary creep,
the strain rate is relatively high, but slows with
increasing strain. This is due to work hardening.
In the Second Stage, the strain rate eventually reaches a minimum
and becomes constant. This is due to the balance between work hardening and
annealing (thermal softening). This stage is known as secondary or steadystate
creep.
Stress dependence of this rate depends on the creep mechanism. In tertiary
creep, the strain rate exponentially increases with stress because of necking
phenomena. (It leads to the formation of internal cracks, Voids, Grain Boundary
Seperation, Necking)

CREEP MECHANISMS
1. STRESS ASSISTED VACANCY DIFFUSION:
It usually experienced in thin films due to
thermal stress development followed by void formation
in the copper films of thickness of 10, 50, 100 nm
2. GRAIN BOUNDARY DIFFUSION:
1. TheKirkendall effectis the motion of the boundary layer
between two metals that occurs as a consequence of the
difference in diffusion rates of the metal atoms.
2. The effect can be observed for example by placing
insoluble markers at the interface between a puremetal
and analloycontaining that metal, and heating to a
temperature wherediffusionis possible; the boundary
will move relative to the markers.
3. For example, usingmolybdenumas a marker
betweencopperandbrass(a copper-zincalloy), the region occupied by the
brass will expand until it includes the molybdenum. This occurs because zinc diffuses
more rapidly than the copper.

CREEP MECHANISMS
3. GRAIN BOUNDARY SLIDING:

Grain boundary sliding is a process in which grains slide

past each other along, or ina zone immediately adjacent to,
their common boundary (Langdon and Vastava 1982).
Adams and Murray (1962) first observed grain boundary
sliding in experimentally deformed bicrystals of NaCl and
MgO, where offset of scratch marker lines pre-inscribed
across the grain boundary occurred.They inferred grain
boundary sliding from the observation of grain neighbor switching during deformation.

4. DISLOCATION MOTION :

Adislocationis acrystallographic defect, within acrystal structure. The presence of

dislocations strongly influences many of the properties of materials
Some types of dislocations can be visualized as being caused by the termination of
a plane ofatomsin the middle of acrystal. In such a case, the
surroundingplanesare not straight, but instead bend around the edge of the
terminating plane so that the crystal structure is perfectly ordered on either side.
There are two primary types:edge dislocationsandscrew dislocations.Mixed
dislocationsare intermediate between these

CRACK SEPARATION MODES

MODE-1 : Opening
MODE-2 : In Plane Shear
MODE-3 : Out of Plane Shear

MODES OF CRACK
There are three ways of applying a force to enable
a
crack to propagate:
Mode I crack Opening mode (atensile stress
normal to the plane of the crack )
Mode II crack Sliding mode (ashear stressacting
parallel to the plane of the crack and perpendicular to the crack
front)

Mode III crack Tearing mode (ashear stressacting

parallel to the plane of the crack and parallel to the crack front )

THANK YOU