Water resources.

Water pollution.
Water pollution criteria.
Surface water treatment.
Wastewater treatment.
Chapter 5 & 6: Masters & Ela

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Water
Universal solvent
Water can dissolve a great variety of compounds, ranging
from simple salts to minerals
Water transports dissolved substances throughout the
biosphere
High surface tension
Physical and biological processes that involve moving water
through, or storing water in, small openings or pore spaces.
Density
Water is the only common compound whose solid form is
lighter than its liquid form. It expand by about 8% when it
freezes, becoming less dense.
If ice were heavier than water, water froze from the bottom up,
all life in the water would die
High heat capacity (4184 J/kgoC)
Its capacity to hold heat has important climatic significance
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Hydrologic cycle

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Whenever the land surface drops

below the top of the water table,
consistent surface water features
such as lakes, ponds, and rivers are
likely to occur
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

1. Water pumped from

wells lowers the
groundwater level.

2. Urbanization
increases runoff to
streams.

3. Sewage treatment
discharges nutrient-rich
waters into streams,
groundwater and
reservoir

4. Agriculture
uses irrigation
water from
wells, and
runoff to
stream from
fields contains
nutrients from
fertilizers.

6. Houses with septic systems add

water through the soil to the
groundwater
and often pollute
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8
water resources

5. Reservoirs allow water

to seep into the ground
recharging groundwater

The major forms of water-quality problems:

Nutrients
Nitrogen: Power plants (NOx), municipal
wastewater, farm runoff, fertilizers
Phosphorus: municipal wastewater,
fertilizers, detergents
Pathogens
untreated or poorly treated sewage

Oxygen-depleting substances
municipal wastewater
Toxic organics
pesticides, herbicides

Toxic metals
from A to Z, esp. Arsenic, Cadmium
and Mercury
Suspended solids (siltation)
soil erosion, industrial processes

eutrophication (= excessive feeding),

that is promotion of undesirable
forms of life brown, slimy waters
disease (diarrhea, cholera) or even
death
asphyxiation of fish and other aquatic
life, produce BOD
poisoning of both human and nonhuman lives; disruption of
metabolism and reproduction
poisoning of both human and nonhuman lives

Murkiness; clogging of bed altered

bottom habitats and spawning
grounds
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

The eutrophication of a lake:

1. In a low-nutrient lake, green

algae is not abundant and the
water is clear

2. Nutrient rich (phosphorus

and nitrogen) runoff enters the
streams and the lake. Algae
start growing forming a tick
layer of biomass
3. Thick layer of algae
biomass limits light
penetration into water
affecting water species life.
Dead algae biomass
increases, bacteria growth
increases and competition for
oxygen becomes critical.
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Spread of cholera from Indonesia in 1961

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Water Quality Standard (EQA 1974)

Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulation, 1979

Standard A for
drinking water
sources;
standard B for
treated industrial
wastewater
discharge

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Surface-Water Pollution
Point source of water
pollution: discharge of
industrial water from a
chemical plant,
domestic sewage

Non-point source of
water pollution:
agriculture nutrient
rich runoff

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

The amount of oxygen required by microorganisms to
oxidize organic wastes aerobically (biochemical
decomposition process)
When BOD is high, the dissolved oxygen content (DO)
of the water may become too low to support life in the
water.
Two parts: carbonaceous oxygen demand (CBOD)
and the nitrogenous oxygen demand (NBOD)

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Determination of water quality:

Five-Day BOD Test (BOD5)

DO for water
at 20oC =
9.1mg/L

BOD5 = (DOinitial DOfinal) / P

Dilution factor = P = volume of wastewater sample / volume of wastewater plus dilution water
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

In some cases it is necessary to seed the dilution water with

microorganisms to assure that there is an adequate bacterial
population to carry out the biodegradation.
To find the BOD of the waste itself, it is necessary to subtract
the oxygen demand caused by the seed from the demand in
mixed sample of waste and dilution water.
BODm Vm = BODw Vw + BODd Vd
P = Vw / Vm ; (1 P) = Vd / Vm
The oxygen demand of the waste itself (BODw):
BODw = [BODm - BODd(1-P)] / P
BODw = [(DOi - DOf) - (Bi Bf)(1-P)] / P
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

BOD test
Most samples of wastewater will require more oxygen
during the incubation period than is found in the BOD
bottle, so the samples must be diluted.
At the proper dilution, the residual DO after five days will
be at least 1 mg/L and the DO uptake will be at least 2
mg/L.
Some common ranges of BOD results are as follows, in mg/L:

Influent
150400

Primary Effluent
60160

Secondary Effluent
1060

Digester Supernatant 10004000+

Industrial Wastes
1003000+
If river /lake water is used then most likely no dilution is
necessary (i.e. 100% sample water)
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Example. Calculation of BOD:

Bottle #
1
2
3
4

mL Seed
3
6
9
12

Initial DO , mg/L

Final DO, mg/L

7.95
7.95
7.90
7.85

5.20
3.85
2.40
1.35

Depletion
2.75
4.10
5.50
6.50

Bottle #1 BOD = [(7.95 5.20) x 300]/3 = (2.75 x 300)/3 = 275

Bottle #2 BOD = [(7.95 3.85) x 300]/6 = (4.10 x 300)/6 = 205
Bottle #3 BOD = [(7.90 2.40) x 300]/9 = (5.50 x 300)/9 = 183
Bottle #4 BOD = [(7.85 1.35) x 300]/12 = (6.50 x 300)/12 = 162
Average seed BOD = (275 + 205 + 183 + 162)/4 = 825/4 = 206 mg/L
This value represents 206 mg/L BOD exerted by 300 mL of the seed material. In
other words, a 300 mL sample of the undiluted seed material would use 206
mg/L DO if incubated at 20C for five days (assuming that oxygen was available
to the sample).
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Oxygen demanding substances:

Two equivalent ways to describe the time dependence
of organic matter in a flask.

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Oxidation of
organic matter :
1st order
reaction:

L0=ultimate
carbonaceous
oxygen demand;
Lt=oxygen demand
left after time t;
k=BOD reaction
constant (time-1);

L0=amount of
oxygen
consumed
(BODt) + amount
of oxygen
remaining to be
consumed after
time t.

BOD remaining as a function of time (a)

IntroductionOxygen
to Environmentalalready
Engineering and
Science: THIRD EDITION
consumed
as a function of time (b)
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Nitrogen organic substances. Nitrification process.

Waste HN3 (ammonia)
2NH3 + 3O2 (by
Nitrosomonas)
2 NO2- (nitrite)+ 2H+ + 2H2O
2NO2- + O2
(by Nitrobacter) 2 NO3(nitrate)
Denitrification process
(anaerobic condition)
NO3- NO2 N2
(Denitrifying bacteria)

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Carbonaceous BOD

Nitrogenous BOD

Loss of dissolved oxygen (DO) in a river proceeds in two steps:

During the first five days or so, only carbon processes take place, leading to the
so-called Carbonaceous Biochemical Demand (CBOD); nitrification begins by
day six or so, adding the Nitrogenous Biochemical Oxygen Demand (NBOD).
The net BOD is the sum of the CBOD and NBOD.
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Deoxygenation

Point-source, plug flow model

Rate of deoxygenation = kdLt
kd=rate constant (day-1)
Lt=remaining BOD after waste entry (mg/L)

Eq. 5.21: L0 = (QwLw + QrLr) / Qw + Qr

L0=ultimate BOD of streamwater+wastewater (mg/L); Lr=ultimate BOD of the river just upstream of the
dischargeIntroduction
point (mg/L);
Lw=ultimate
BOD of
wastewater
(mg/L); Qr=flow rate of the river just upstream of
to Environmental
Engineering
andthe
Science:
THIRD EDITION
3
Gilbertpoint
M. Masters
and Q
Wendell
P. Ela 0-13-601837-8
the discharge
(m3/s);
w=flow rate of wastewater (m /s).

Reaeration
The rate at which oxygen is replenished is assumed to be
proportional to the difference between the actual DO in the river at
any given location and the saturated value of dissolved oxygen.
Rate of reaeration = krD
kr = reaeration constant (time-1)
D = dissolved oxygen deficit = (DOs DO)
DOs = saturated value of dissolved oxygen
DO = actual dissolved oxygen at a given location downstream

Mass balance approach

DO
Do = initial oxygen deficit of the mixture of river and wastewater
DOs = saturated value of DO in water at the temperature of the river
DOw = DO in the wastewater
DOr = DO in the river just upstream of the wastewater discharge point
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Streeter-Phelps oxygen sag curve

u = stream speed
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Deoxygenation rate > reaeration rate DO drops

At critical point (xc) and
deoxygenation
rate = reaeration rate
Introduction to Environmental Engineering
Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8
Reaeration rate after (xc) increases river recovers

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

The density of water reaches a maximum at 4C

Why it is important?
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Thermal stratification of a lake; seasonal temperature profiles

Density differences between surface water and the water nearer to

the bottom inhibit vertical mixing in the lake, causing a very stable
layering effect known as thermal stratification.
Summer stratification creates essentially two separate lakes a
warm lake (epilimnion) floating on the top of a cold layer
(hypolimnion).
Similarly, in climates that are cold enough for the surface to drop
Introduction
to Environmental
Engineering
Science: THIRD
EDITION
below
4oC,
there will
be aandwinter
stratification.
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

pH of water.
-How pH affects water quality?
Bicarbonate Buffering
Bicarbonate (HCO3-) will react with added hydrogen ion (acid) to
form neutral carbonic acid (H2CO3). Therefore, adding acid to a
solution may have little or no effect on pH. That is, bicarbonate is
a buffer.

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Acid rains. Acidification of water bodies.

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Groundwater

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Sources of Groundwater Contamination

Discharge from improperly operated or located septic
systems (pathogens, household chemicals)
Leaking underground storage tanks (gasoline, oil,
chemicals)
Improper disposal of hazardous and other chemical wastes
Spills form pipelines or transportation accidents (diesel fuel)
Recharge of groundwater with contaminated surface water
Leaking dumps and landfills (car battery acid, paint,
household cleaners)

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Contamination of groundwater . Contaminant transport.

A plume spreads as it moves down gradient

(a) In one dimension
(b) In two dimensions
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Effect of sorption properties in the contaminant transport . Some contaminants are

absorbed and adsorbed as they move through the medium. Retardation factor (R) =
ratio of total contaminant in a unit volume of aquifer to the contaminant dissolved in
groundwater.

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Plume separation for Chloride (CL), Carbon Tetrachloride (CTET)

and Tetrachloroethylene (PCE) 21 months after injection
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Groundwater remediation technologies

DNAPLs = Dense Non- Aqueous-Phase Liquids

LNAPLs = Light Non- Aqueous-Phase Liquids
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Soil vapor extraction system

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Combination of air sparging and soil vapor extraction

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Air sparging with horizontal wells

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

In situ (on site) bioremediation

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Manipulating the hydraulic gradients with multiple wells:

(a) The injection and extraction wells push and pull the plume
away from the production well
(b) The injection well pushes the plume into the extraction well
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

PRB for treatment of contaminated groundwater plume

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8