Cell structure and

function
Doreen Alexis F Villanueva
Introduction to Physiology

Outline
Introduction
Membranes
Membrane Structure
Membrane Junctions

Cell Organelles

Nucleus
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Endosomes
Mitochondria
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Cytoskeleton

Outline
Introduction
Membranes
Membrane Structure
Membrane Junctions

Cell Organelles

Nucleus
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Endosomes
Mitochondria
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Cytoskeleton

Cells
Smallest living unit
Most are microscopic

Characteristics of All Cells

A surrounding membrane
Protoplasm cell contents in thick fluid
Organelles structures for cell function
Control center with DNA

How big is the cell?

Cell Types
Prokaryotic
Eukaryotic

Prokaryotic Cells
First cell type on earth
Cell type of Bacteria and Archaea

Prokaryotic Cells
No membrane bound nucleus
Nucleoid = region of DNA concentration
Organelles not bound by membranes

Eukaryotic Cells
Nucleus bound by membrane
Include fungi, protists, plant, and
animal cells
Possess many organelles

Protozoan

Representative Animal
Cell

Representative Plant Cell

The interior of a cell is divided into two regions:

(1) the nucleus, a spherical or oval structure
usually near the center of the cell, and (2) the
cytoplasm, the region outside the nucleus

The interior of a cell is divided into two regions:

(1) the nucleus, a spherical or oval structure
usually near the center of the cell, and (2) the
cytoplasm, the region outside the nucleus

The cytoplasm contains two components: (1) cell

organelles and (2) the fluid surrounding the
organelles known as the cy- tosol (cytoplasmic
solution).

The term intracellular fluid refers to all the fluid inside

a cellin other words, cytosol plus the fluid inside all the
organelles, including the nucleus. The chemical
compositions of the fluids in these cell organelles differ
from that of the cytosol. The cytosol is by far the largest
intracellular fluid compartment.

Outline
Introduction

Membranes
Membrane Structure
Membrane Junctions

Cell Organelles

Nucleus
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Endosomes
Mitochondria
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Cytoskeleton

Membranes
Membranes form a major structural element in
cells. Although membranes perform a variety of
functions, their most universal role is to act as a
selective barrier to the passage of molecules,
allowing some molecules to cross while excluding
others.

The Plasma Membrane

The plasma membrane regulates the passage of
substances into and out of the cell, whereas the
membranes surrounding cell organelles allow
selective movement of substances between the
organelles and the cytosol.
One of the ad- vantages of restricting the
movements of molecules across membranes is
confining the products of chem- ical reactions to
specific cell organelles.

The plasma membrane, in addition to acting as a

selective barrier, plays an important role in
detecting chemical signals from other cells and in
anchoring cells to adjacent cells and to the
extracellular matrix of connective-tissue proteins

Outline
Introduction

Membranes
Membrane Structure
Membrane Junctions

Cell Organelles

Nucleus
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Endosomes
Mitochondria
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Cytoskeleton

Membrane Structure
All membranes consist of a double layer of lipid
molecules in which proteins are embedded

The major membrane lipids are phospholipids.

these are amphipathic molecules: one end has a
charged region, and the remainder of the molecule,
which consists of two long fatty acid chains, is
nonpolar.

Drawing of the fluid-mosaic model of membranes,

showing the phospholipid bilayer and imbedded proteins

Lipid Bilayer
Phospholipid
Phosphatidylcholine
Phosphatidylserine
Phosphatidylethanolamine
Phosphatidylinositol
Cholesterol
Sphingolipid

Lipid mobility
Rotation

reducing membrane fluidity

enhancing membrane fluidity

Cholesterol
The plasma membrane also contains cholesterol
(about one molecule of cholesterol for each
molecule of phospholipid), whereas intracellular
membranes contain very little cholesterol.
Cholesterol, a steroid, is slightly amphipathic
because of a single polar hydroxyl group on its
nonpolar ring structure.

Membrane proteins

Integral
protein

Integral (intrinsic) proteins

Peripheral (extrinsic) proteins

Peripheral
protein

 There are two classes of membrane proteins:

integral and peripheral. Integral membrane
proteins are closely associated with the
membrane lipids and can- not be extracted from
the membrane without disrupting the lipid bilayer.
Like the phospholipids, the integral proteins are
amphipathic, having polar amino acid side chains
in one region of the molecule and nonpo- lar side
chains clustered together in a separate region.

Because they are amphipathic, integral proteins

are arranged in the membrane with the same
orientation as amphipathic lipidsthe polar
regions are at the surfaces in association with
polar water molecules, and
the nonpolar regions are in the interior in
association with nonpolar fatty acid chains

Transmembrane proteins
Most integral
proteins span
the entire
membrane and
are referred to
as
transmembra
ne proteins.
These
transmembrane
proteins cross
the lipid bilayer
several times

 These proteins have polar regions connected by

nonpolar segments that associate with the
nonpolar regions of the lipids in the membrane
interior.
The polar regions of transmembrane proteins
may extend far beyond the surfaces of the lipid
bilayer. Some transmembrane proteins form
channels through which ions or water can cross
the membrane, whereas others are associated
with the transmission of chemical signals across
the membrane or the anchoring of extracellular
and intracellular protein filaments to the plasma
membrane.

Peripheral Membrane
Proteins
Peripheral membrane proteins are not
amphipathic and do not associate with the nonpolar
regions of the lipids in the interior of the
membrane. They are located at the membrane
surface where they are bound to the polar regions
of the integral membrane proteins
Most of the peripheral proteins are on the
cytosolic surface of the plasma membrane where
they are associated with cytoskeletal elements
that influence cell shape and motility.

Structure of cell membrane:

Fluid Mosaic Model (Singer & Nicholson, 1972)

Outline
Introduction

Membranes
Membrane Structure

Membrane Junctions
Cell Organelles

Nucleus
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Endosomes
Mitochondria
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Cytoskeleton

6 Major Functions Of Membrane

Proteins
1. Transport. (left) A protein that spans the membrane
may provide a hydrophilic channel across the
membrane that is selective for a particular solute.
(right) Other transport proteins shuttle a substance
from one side to the other by changing shape. Some of
these proteins hydrolyze ATP as an energy ssource to
actively pump substances across the membrane

ATP
Enzymes

2. Enzymatic activity. A protein built into the membrane

may be an enzyme with its active site exposed to
substances in the adjacent solution. In some cases,
several enzymes in a membrane are organized as a
team that carries out sequential steps of a metabolic
pathway.
Signal transduction. A membrane protein may have a
binding site with a specific shape that fits the shape of a
chemical messenger, such as a hormone. The external
messenger (signal) may cause a conformational change
in the protein (receptor) that relays the message to the
inside of the cell.

38

3.

Signal

Receptor

4.

Cell-cell recognition. Some glyco-proteins serve as

identification tags that are specifically recognized
by other cells.
Glycoprotein

6.

Intercellular joining. Membrane proteins of adjacent cells

may hook together in various kinds of junctions, such as
gap junctions or tight junctions

Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix

(ECM). Microfilaments or other elements of the
cytoskeleton may be bonded to membrane proteins,
a function that helps maintain cell shape and stabilizes
the location of certain membrane proteins. Proteins that
adhere to the ECM can coordinate extracellular and
intracellular changes

39

5.

Cell Adhesion
Gycocalyx
-vecro-like ogliosaccharides that
bind and hold to other cells

Tight Junctions
- seal/adhere cells together

Adherens Junctions
- actin filaments that bind and hold
cells together

Gap Junction
-trans-cellular protein channels

Membrane Junctions
Gap Junctions- These spaces allow
chemicals,ions to pass through thereby allowing
cell to cell communication. CONNEXONS are the
tubes which are seen between gap junctions.
Desmosomes- Anchoring junctions; prevent cells
from being pulled apart.
Tight Junctions- Impermeable Junctions. While
cells are bound together they are leakproof at these
junctions.

Plasma Membrane
Specializations
Membrane junctions
Tight junctions
Desmosomes
Gap junctions

Figure 3.3

Desmosom
es consist of
a region
between two
adjacent
cells where
the apposed
plasma
membranes
are
separated by
about 20 nm
and have a
dense
accumulatio
n of protein
at the
cytoplasmic
surface of

Tight Junction

is formed when the extracellular surfaces of two

adjacent plasma membranes are joined together
so that there is no extracellular space between
them. x

gap junction
consists of protein channels linking the cytosols of adjacent cells
In the region of the gap junction, the two opposing plasma membranes
come within 2 to 4 nm of each other, which allows specific proteins from
the two membranes to join, forming small, protein- lined channels linking
the two cells.

Cell Junctions

Long-lasting or permanent connections between

adjacent cells, 3 types of cell junctions:
TIGHT JUNCTIONS
Tight junction

Tight junctions prevent

fluid from moving
across a layer of cells

0.5 m

At tight junctions, the membranes of

neighboring cells are very tightly pressed
against each other, bound together by
specific proteins (purple). Forming continuous seals around the cells, tight junctions
prevent leakage of extracellular fluid across
A layer of epithelial cells.

DESMOSOMES
Desmosomes (also called anchoring
junctions) function like rivets, fastening cells
Together into strong sheets. Intermediate
Filaments made of sturdy keratin proteins
Anchor desmosomes in the cytoplasm.

Tight junctions
Intermediate
filaments
Desmosome
Gap
junctions

Space
between Plasma membranes
cells
of adjacent cells

1 m

Extracellular
matrix
Gap junction

0.1 m

GAP JUNCTIONS
Gap junctions (also called communicating
junctions) provide cytoplasmic channels from
one cell to an adjacent cell. Gap junctions
consist of special membrane proteins that
surround a pore through which ions, sugars,
amino acids, and other small molecules may
pass. Gap junctions are necessary for communication between cells in many types of tissues,
including heart muscle and animal embryos.

Outline
Introduction
Membranes
Membrane Structure
Membrane Junctions

Cell Organelles

Nucleus
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Endosomes
Mitochondria
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Cytoskeleton

Structure of
Animal Cells

Cell Video

Outline
Introduction
Membranes
Membrane Structure
Membrane Junctions

Cell Organelles
Nucleus

Ribosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Endosomes
Mitochondria
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Cytoskeleton

Outline
Introduction
Membranes
Membrane Structure
Membrane Junctions

Cell Organelles
Nucleus

Ribosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Endosomes
Mitochondria
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Cytoskeleton

The Nucleus And The Nuclear Envelope

Repository for genetic material called chromatin - DNA and proteins
Nucleolus: holds chromatin and ribosomal subunits - region of intensive
ribosomal RNA synthesis
Nuclear envelope: Surface of nucleus bound by two phospholipid bilayer
membranes - Double membrane with pores
Nucleoplasm: semifluid medium inside the nucleus
Nucleus

1 m

Nucleus

Nucleolus
Chromatin
Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane
Outer membrane
Nuclear pore
Pore
complex

Rough ER
Surface of nuclear
envelope.

1 m

Ribosome

0.25 m

Close-up of
nuclear
envelope
Pore complexes (TEM).

Nuclear lamina (TEM).

Cell Organelles

Nucleus

Nickname:The Control Center

Function: holds the DNA
Parts:
Nucleolus: dark spot in the middle of the
nucleus that helps make ribosomes
Chromatin: loosely coiled DNA (cells not dividing)
two types hetero__ dark
- eu__ - light

Chromosomes

DNA of eukaryotes is divided into linear chromosomes.

Exist as strands of chromatin, except during cell division
Histones associated packaging proteins

Mitochondria

Double membrane
Mitochondrial (maternal) DNA,
replicates independently from the cell
Power House of the cell
Food converted into energy
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Consumes Oxygen, produces CO2

Mitochondria

Sites of cellular respiration, ATP synthesis

Bound by a double membrane surrounding fluid-filled matrix.
The inner membranes of mitochondria are cristae
The matrix contains enzymes that break down carbohydrates and
the cristae house protein complexes that produce ATP

Endomembrane System

Compartmentalizes cell, channeling passage of molecules

through cells interior.
Endoplasmic reticulum
Rough ER - studded with ribosomes
Smooth ER - few ribosomes

Rough ER

Rough ER is especially abundant in cells that secrete proteins.

As a polypeptide is synthesized on a ribosome attached to

rough ER, it is threaded into the cisternal space through a
pore formed by a protein complex in the ER membrane.

As it enters the cisternal space, the new protein folds into its
native conformation.

Most secretory polypeptides are glycoproteins, proteins to

which a carbohydrate is attached.

Secretory proteins are packaged in transport vesicles that

carry them to their next stage.

Rough ER

Rough ER is also a membrane factory.

Membrane-bound proteins are synthesized directly into the

membrane.

Enzymes in the rough ER also synthesize phospholipids from

precursors in the cytosol.

As the ER membrane expands, membrane can be transferred

as transport vesicles to other components of the
endomembrane system.

Smooth ER

The smooth ER is rich in enzymes and plays a role in a

variety of metabolic processes.
Enzymes of smooth ER synthesize lipids, including oils,
phospholipids, and steroids.
These include the sex hormones of vertebrates and adrenal
steroids.
In the smooth ER of the liver, enzymes help detoxify poisons
and drugs such as alcohol and barbiturates.
Smooth ER stores calcium ions.
Muscle cells have a specialized smooth ER that
pumps calcium ions from the cytosol and stores
them in its cisternal space.
When a nerve impulse stimulates a muscle cell,
calcium ions rush from the ER into the cytosol,
triggering contraction.

Ribosomes
-sites of protein synthesis.
-not membrane-bound
- consists of a small and larger subunit,
- consists of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and some 50
structural proteins.
-Bound ribsosomes make proteins for export, non-bound
ribosomes make proteins for internal use
-Most plentiful organelle in the cell

Ribosomes
Ribosomes are RNA-protein complexes composed of two
subunits that join and attach to messenger RNA.
Site of protein synthesis
Assembled in nucleoli
Ribosomes

ER

Cytosol
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Free ribosomes

Bound ribosomes
Large
subunit

0.5 m

Small
subunit

TEM showing ER and ribosomes Diagram of a ribosome

Lysosomes:

circular, but bigger than ribosomes

Nickname: Clean-up Crews
Function: to break down food into particles the rest of the
cell can use and to destroy old cells

Intracellular digestion
Releases nutrients
Breakdown of waste

Golgi Complex/Apparatus
Nickname: The shippers
Function: packages, modifies, and
transports materials to different location
inside/outside of the cell
Appearance: stack of pancakes

Vessicles

Peroxisomes

Hydrogen Peroxide generated and degraded to

detoxify the cell

Vessicles

Material transport

Vacuole
-

stores water

Plastids
-

Leucoplasts, aka amyloplasts store starch, protein or

oils.
Chromoplasts store bright color pigments

Microtubules
Large, hollow tubes of tubulin
protein:
attach to centrosome
strengthen cell and anchor organelles
change cell shape
move vesicles within cell (kinesin and
dynein)
form spindle apparatus
Form cilia and flagella

Centrioles in the
Centrosome
Centrioles form
spindle
apparatus during
cell division
Centrosome:
cytoplasm
surrounding
centriole

Membrane Bound Organelles

Nucleus

Lysosomes vesicle
containing digestive
enzymes that break down
food/foreign particles
Vacuoles food storage
and water regulation
Peroxisomes - contain
enzymes that catalyze the
removal of electrons and
associated hydrogen
atoms

1 m

Lysosome

Lysosome contains
active hydrolytic
enzymes

Food vacuole
fuses with
lysosome

Hydrolytic
enzymes digest
food particles

Digestive
enzymes
Lysosome
Plasma membrane
Digestion
Food vacuole

(a) Phagocytosis: lysosome digesting food

Cytoskeleton
The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is a network of
filaments and tubules that extends from the
nucleus to the plasma membrane that support
cell shape and anchor organelles.
Protein fibers
Actin filaments
cell movement
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
centrioles

Centrioles
Centrioles are short
cylinders with a 9 + 0
pattern of microtubule
triplets.
Centrioles may be
involved in microtubule
formation and
disassembly during cell
division and in the
organization of cilia and
flagella.

Cilia and Flagella

Contain specialized arrangements of microtubules
Are locomotor appendages of some cells
Cilia and flagella share a common ultrastructure
Outer microtubule
doublet
Dynein arms

0.1 m

Central
microtubule
Outer doublets
cross-linking
proteins inside

Microtubules

Radial
spoke

Plasma
membrane
Basal body

0.5 m

(a)

(b)

0.1 m

Triplet

(c)
Cross section of basal body

Plasma
membrane

The Golgi apparatus

The Golgi apparatus is the shipping and receiving center for cell
products.
Many transport vesicles from the ER travel to the Golgi apparatus for
modification of their contents.
The Golgi is a center of manufacturing, warehousing, sorting, and
shipping.
The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacscisternae
looking like a stack of pita bread.
The Golgi sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles.

Functions Of The Golgi Apparatus

Golgi
apparatus
cis face
(receiving side of
Golgi apparatus)

1 Vesicles move
2 Vesicles coalesce to
6 Vesicles also
form new cis Golgi cisternae
from ER to Golgi
transport certain
Cisternae
proteins back to ER
3 Cisternal
maturation:
Golgi cisternae
move in a cisto-trans
direction

5 Vesicles transport specific

proteins backward to newer
Golgi cisternae

0.1 0 m

4 Vesicles form and

leave Golgi, carrying
specific proteins to
other locations or to
the plasma membrane for secretion

trans face
(shipping side of
Golgi apparatus)

TEM of Golgi apparatus

Cilia and Flagella

Cilia (small and numerous) and flagella (large and single)
have a 9 + 2 pattern of microtubules and are involved in
cell movement.
Cilia and flagella move when the microtubule doublets
slide past one another.
Each cilium and flagellum has a basal body at its base.

Cilia and Flagella

(a) Motion of flagella. A flagellum
usually undulates, its snakelike
motion driving a cell in the same
direction as the axis of the
flagellum. Propulsion of a human
sperm cell is an example of
flagellatelocomotion (LM).

Direction of swimming

1 m
(b) Motion of cilia. Cilia have a backand-forth motion that moves the
cell in a direction perpendicular
to the axis of the cilium. A dense
nap of cilia, beating at a rate of
about 40 to 60 strokes a second,
covers this Colpidium, a
freshwater protozoan (SEM).

15 m