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2.

1 Nervous System
2.1.1
System
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4
System
2.1.5
System

Organization of Nervous
Classification of Neurons
Central Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous
Autonomic Nervous

http://www.slideshare.net/jcott5/notes-regulation-nervous-and-chemical-ib-18402996

2.1.1 Organization of
Nervous System

Structural Classification of NS:

Nervous system is structurally classified into central


nervous system and peripheral nervous system.
Central nervous system consists of brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral nervous system consists of cranial nerves and
spinal nerves.
Cranial nerves extend from the brain whereas spinal nerves
extend from the spinal cord.
Cranial nerves carry impulses to and from the brain.
Spinal nerves carry impulses to and from the spinal cord.

http://anatomybodyblog.com/images/9991-simple-nervous-system-diagram.jpg

Functional Classification of NS:


The functional classification is concerned only with PNS.
PNS is functionally classified into sensory / afferent
division and motor / efferent division.
Sensory / afferent division conveys impulses to the CNS
from sensory receptors located in various parts of the
body.
Sensory / afferent division consists of:
somatic sensory delivers impulses from the skin,
skeletal muscles and joints to CNS, and
visceral sensory delivers impulses from the visceral
organs to CNS.

Motor / efferent division carries impulses from the


CNS to effector organs, muscles and glands.
Motor / efferent division consists of :
Somatic nervous system controls voluntary
actions and reflexes in skeletal muscles.
Autonomic nervous system controls involuntary
actions in smooth and cardiac muscles and
glands.
Autonomic nervous system consists of
sympathetic division and parasympathetic
division.

http://antranik.org/neurons-in-the-nervous-system/

2.1.2 Classification of
Neurons
Structural classification of Neurons:
Based on the number of processes extending from
the cell body, neurons are structurally classified into:
1. multipolar neurons has several processes.
Eg. motor and interneurons

2. bipolar neurons has 2 processes.


Eg. sensory receptor cells in eyes and ears

3. unipolar neurons has 1 process.


Eg. sensory neurons

http://antranik.org/neurons-in-the-nervous-system/

Functional classification of Neurons:


Based on the direction of the nerve impulses relative
to CNS, neurons are functionally classified into:
1. sensory / afferent neuron
carry impulses from sensory receptors to CNS.
Their cell bodies are always found in a ganglion outside the
CNS.

2. motor / efferent neuron


carry impulses from CNS to effectors.
Their cell bodies are always located in the CNS.

3. association / interneuron
carry impulses from sensory /afferent neuron to motor
/efferent neuron.
Their cell bodies are always located in the CNS.

http://www.tutorvista.com/biology/reflex-arc-diagram

2.1.3 Central Nervous System

The spinal cord and brain make up the CNS.


Both the spinal cord and brain are protected
by bone; the spinal cord is surrounded by
vertebrae and the brain is enclosed by skull.
Both spinal cord and brain are wrapped in
protective membranes called meninges.
The spaces between meninges are filled with
cerebrospinal fluid, which cushions & protects
the CNS.
CNS consists of 2 types of nervous tissue:
gray matter & white matter.
Gray matter contains cell bodies and short,
non-myelinated fibres.
White matter contains myelinated fibres.

http://gallery4share.com/c/centralnervous-system-diagram-3d.html

A.The Brain

https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/72/flashcards/255072/png/brain_structure1333211931067.png

A.The Brain

http://www.tutorvista.com/content/science/science-ii/control-coordination/central-nervous-system.php

http://bio1152.nicerweb.com/Locked/media/ch49/49_09bBrainDevelopmtAdlt-L.jpg

Structures & Functions of the


Brain
1. Cerebrum / Telencephalon
2. Diencephalon (Hypothalamus, Thalamus
& Pineal gland)
3. Cerebellum
4. Brain stem (Mid brain, Pons & Medulla
oblongata)

1. Cerebrum / Telencephalon
The largest portion of the human brain.
Cerebrum has two halves, i.e. the left & right cerebral
hemispheres.
A deep groove called the longitudinal fissure divides the left &
right cerebral hemispheres.
The two cerebral hemispheres are connected by a bridge of
tracts within the corpus callosum.

Functions:
1. to receive sensory input, carry out integration and
commanding voluntary motor responses.
2. to coordinate the activities of the other parts of the
brains.
3. for learning and memory.
4. for language and speech.

Cerebrum has 4 lobes:


1. frontal lobe primary motor area, premotor area,
motor
speech area, prefrontal area.
2. parietal lobe primary somatosensory area,
somatosensory
association area, primary taste area.
3. occipital lobe primary visual area, visual
association area.
4. temporal lobe primary auditory area, auditory
association
area, sensory speech area.

http://www.tutorvista.com/content/science/science-ii/control-coordination/central-nervous-system.php

2. Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus, thalamus & pineal gland belong to
the diencephalon.
Hypothalamus forms the floor of the third
ventricle.
Functions:
1. - integrating centre that helps maintain homeostasis by
regulating hunger, sleep, thirst, body temperature,
and
water balance.
2. - controls the pituitary gland
3. - serves as a link between the nervous and endocrine
systems.

3. Thalamus
Consists of two masses of gray matter located in
the sides and roof of the third ventricle.
Functions:
1. receiving end for all sensory input except smell.
2. integrates visual, auditory and somatosensory
information
and send it to the appropriate portions of the brain.
3. participate in higher mental functions such as
memory &
emotion

4. Pineal Gland
- Secretes the hormone melatonin.

5. Cerebellum
Separated from the brain stem by the fourth ventricle.
It receives sensory input from the eyes, ears, joints,
and muscles about the present position of body parts
and receive motor output from the cerebral cortex
about where these parts should be located. After
integrating these information, it sends motor impulses
by way of the brain stem to the skeletal muscles.
Functions:
1. maintains posture and balance.
2. ensure skeletal muscles to produce smooth,
coordinated voluntary movements.
3. assists the learning of the new motor skills.

6. Midbrain
Functions:

1. acts as a relay station for tracts passing between the


cerebrum and the spinal cord or cerebellum.
2. has reflex centres for visual, auditory, and tactile
responses.

7. Pons
Functions:
1 regulate breathing rate together with medulla
oblongata.
2. has reflex centres concerned with head movement in
response to visual and auditory stimuli.

8. Medulla Oblongata
Functions:
1. has reflex centres for regulating heartbeat,
breathing, and
vasoconstriction (blood pressure).
2. has reflex centres for vomiting, coughing,
sneezing,
hiccuping, and swallowing.
3. control involuntary actions.

B. The Spinal Cord


The spinal cord extends from the base of the
brain through a large opening in the skull called
the foramen magnum and into the vertebral
canal formed by the openings in the vertebrae
that make up the vertebral column.
Vertebrae are separated by intervertebral disks.
Spinal cord has a central canal, gray matter
and white matter.
The gray matter is centrally located and shaped
like letter H . It contains portions of sensory
and motor neurons, and interneurons.

The dorsal root of a spinal nerve contains


sensory fibres entering the gray matter, and
the ventral root of a spinal nerve contains
motor fibres exiting the gray matter.
The dorsal and ventral roots join before the
spinal nerve leaves the vertebral canal.
The white matter of the spinal cord occurs in
areas around the gray matter.
The white matter contains ascending tracts
taking information to the brain and
descending tracts taking information from the
brain.

Functions of spinal cord:


1. provides a means of
communication between the brain
and the peripheral nerves that leave
the cord.
2. centre for spinal reflex arcs.

http://www.tutorvista.com/content/science/science-ii/control-coordination/central-nervous-system.php

http://antranik.org/central-nervous-system-spinal-cord/

2.1.4 Peripheral Nervous


System

http://www.easynotecards.com/notecard_set/29867

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) composed


of nerves and ganglia lies outside the CNS.
The cranial nerves extend from the brain.
The spinal nerves extend from the spinal cord.
Human has 12 pairs of cranial nerves. Some of
these are sensory nerves, some are motor
nerves and some are mixed nerves that contain
both sensory and motor nerves.
Cranial nerves are largely concerned with the
head, neck, and facial regions of the body.
However, vagus nerve has branches in
pharynx, larynx, and most of the internal
organs.

http://global.britannica.com/science/vagus-nerve

FOR REFERENCE ONLY

oh, oh, oh, to touch and feel very good velvet, ah.

http://usmle1mikmonics.tumblr.com/post/79983374433/artofapa-cranial-nerves-from-j-muniz

FOR REFERENCE ONLY

FOR REFERENCE ONLY


thecollectioncup.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/img_08511.jpg

FOR REFERENCE ONLY


http://www.slideshare.net/pawan1physiotherapy/cranial-nerve-assessmentsimple-and-easy-to-perform-for-medics-and-physiotherapist

Spinal Nerves:
Human has 31 pairs of spinal nerves. Each spinal
nerve originates when two short branches, or roots,
join together.
The dorsal root contains sensory fibres that
conduct impulses from sensory receptors to the
spinal cord. The cell body of a sensory neuron is in
the dorsal-root ganglion. The ventral root contains
motor fibres that conduct impulses from the spinal
cord to the effectors.
All spinal nerves are mixed nerves that contain
many sensory and motor fibres.
Each spinal nerve serves the particular region of
the body in which it is located.

Diagram
showing
the
different
spinal
nerves

http://antranik.org/central-nervous-system-spinal-cord/

Reflex Action
Reflex action: The fast, automatic, and
involuntary response to an external
stimulus.
Reflex arc: The pathway or neurons
involved in a reflex action.
The basic elements of the reflex arc are:

http://genius.com/Human-physiology-structure-and-function-of-the-nervous-system-i-annotated/

2-Neuron Reflex Arc: eg. knee-jerk reflex (patellar


reflex)
When the patellar tendon just below the knee is
tapped (stimulus), the sensory receptors (stretch
receptors in the quadriceps muscle) generate nerve
impulses. The impulses move along the sensory
neuron towards the spinal cord. In the spinal cord, the
impulses pass to the motor neuron and travel along
the motor neuron to the effector (quadriceps muscle
of thigh), which cause muscle contraction that lead to
extension of the lower leg at the knee (response).

3-Neuron Reflex Arc: eg. withdrawal of


your hand away from a sharp object, etc.
If your hand touches a sharp pin (stimulus),
sensory receptors in the skin generate nerve
impulses. The impulses move along sensory neuron
to the interneurons in the spinal cord. Then, the
impulses travel along the motor neuron to the
effector, which cause muscle contraction that
withdraw your hand from the pin (response).
Various other reactions are also possible, (eg. look
at the pin, wince, and cry out in pain) because some
of the interneurons involved carry nerve impulses to
the brain.

http://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/766/flashcards/182766/png/reflex_arc_21320618413113.png

2.1.5 Autonomic Nervous


System

The efferent or motor division of the PNS is


subdivided into the somatic system and the
autonomic system.
The somatic system serves the skin, skeletal
muscles, and tendons.
The somatic system includes nerves that take
sensory information from the external sensory
receptors to the CNS and motor commands away
from the CNS to the skeletal muscles.
Somatic system controls reflexes and voluntary
actions.

The autonomic system of the PNS regulates the activity of


cardiac and smooth muscle, and glands.
The autonomic system is divided into the sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions.
The common features between sympathetic &
parasympathetic division are:
1. they controls involuntary actions.
2. they innervate all internal organs.
3. the utilize two neurons and one ganglion for each impulse.
The first neuron has a cell body within the CNS and a
preganglionic fibre. The second neuron has a cell body within
the ganglion and a postganglionic fibre.

Sympathetic Division
Most preganglionic fibres of the sympathetic
division arise from the middle, or thoracic-lumbar,
portion of the spinal cord and terminate in ganglia
that lie near the cord.
Preganglionic fibre is short, but the postganglionic
fibre is long.
Control involuntary actions during emergency
situation.
The neurotransmitter released by the preganglionic
fibre is acetylcholine, but the neurotransmitter
released by the postganglionic fibre is
norepinephrine.
Functions: (refer to the diagram)

Parasympathetic Division
Includes a few cranial nerves (eg. vagus nerve) and fibres
that arise from the sacral portion of the spinal cord.
This division is often referred to as the craniosacral
portion of the autonomic system
Preganglionic fibre is long, but the postganglionic fibre is
short.
Control involuntary actions during relaxed situation.
The neurotransmitter released by both the preganglionic
and postganglionic fibres is acetylcholine.
Functions: (refer to the diagram)

http://antranik.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/comparison-of-autonomic-andsomatic-motor-systems-cell-bodies-axons-effect-neurotransmittor-ach-ne.jpg

http://www.depure.org/nervous-working-system-in-human-body/autonomic-nervous-system/

http://33.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_loqn8drDgY1qbub56o1_500.gif

http://genius.com/Human-physiology-structure-and-function-of-the-nervous-system-i-annotated/

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