The Cell Cycle and How Cells Divide

Phases of the Cell Cycle

The cell cycle consists of
Interphase normal cell activity
The mitotic phase cell divsion
INTERPHASE

Growth
G1
Ce
ll
Di
vs
io
n

(DNA synthesis)
Growth
G2

Functions of Cell Division

100 m

(a) Reproduction. An amoeba,

a single-celled eukaryote, is
dividing into two cells. Each
new cell will be an individual
organism (LM).

200 m

20 m

(b) Growth and development.

(c) Tissue renewal. These dividing
This micrograph shows a
bone marrow cells (arrow) will
sand dollar embryo shortly after
give rise to new blood cells (LM).
the fertilized egg divided, forming
two cells (LM).

Cell Division

An integral part of the cell cycle

Results in genetically identical daughter cells
Cells duplicate their genetic material
Before they divide, ensuring that each daughter
cell receives an exact copy of the genetic
material, DNA

DNA

Genetic information - genome

Packaged into chromosomes

Figure 12.3
50 m

Chromosomes

All eukaryotic cells store genetic information

in chromosomes.
Most eukaryotes have between 10 and 50
chromosomes in their body cells.
Human cells have 46 chromosomes.
23 nearly-identical pairs

Structure of Chromosomes

Chromosomes are composed of a

complex of DNA and protein called
chromatin that condenses during cell
division
DNA exists as a single, long, doublestranded fiber extending chromosomes
entire length.
Each unduplicated chromosome contains
one DNA molecule, which may be
several inches long
7

http://o.quizlet.com/i/kE4cszbC564mF4oXDYQtvg_m.jpg

http://genegeek.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/chromosome2.jpg

DNA packed
Centromere
Kinetochore
8

Chromosomes

A diploid cell has two sets of each of its chromosomes

A human has 46 chromosomes (2n = 46)
In a cell in which DNA synthesis has occurred all the chromosomes are
duplicated and thus each consists of two identical sister chromatids
Maternal set of
chromosomes (n = 3)
2n = 6
Paternal set of
chromosomes (n = 3)

Two sister chromatids

of one replicated
chromosome
Centromere

Two nonsister
chromatids in
a homologous pair

Pair of homologous
chromosomes
(one from each set)

Structure of Chromosomes

The centromere is a constricted region of the chromosome containing a

specific DNA sequence, to which is bound 2 discs of protein called
kinetochores.
Kinetochores serve as points of attachment for microtubules that move
the chromosomes during cell division:
Metaphase chromosome

Centromere
region of
chromosome

Kinetochore

Kinetochore
microtubules

Sister Chromatids
10
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Phases of the Cell Cycle

Interphase

G1 - primary growth

S - genome replicated
G2 - secondary growth

M - mitosis
C - cytokinesis

11

A Comparison Of Mitosis And Meiosis

MITOSIS

MEIOSIS
Chiasma (site of
crossing over)

Parent cell
(before chromosome replication)

MEIOSIS I

Prophase I

Prophase

Chromosome
replication

Duplicated chromosome
(two sister chromatids)

Chromosome
replication

Tetrad formed by
synapsis of homologous
chromosomes

2n = 6

Chromosomes
positioned at the
metaphase plate

Metaphase

Sister chromatids
separate during
anaphase

Anaphase
Telophase

2n

Tetrads
positioned at the
metaphase plate

Homologues
separate
during
anaphase I;
sister
chromatids
remain together

Metaphase I

Anaphase I
Telophase I
Haploid
n=3

Daughter
cells of
meiosis I

2n

MEIOSIS II

Daughter cells
of mitosis
n

Daughter cells of meiosis II

Sister chromatids separate during anaphase II

12

Comparison

Meiosis
DNA duplication
followed by 2 cell
divisions
Sysnapsis
Crossing-over
One diploid cell
produces 4
haploid cells
Each new cell
has a unique
combination of
genes

Mitosis
Homologous
chromosomes do not
pair up
No genetic exchange
between homologous
chromosomes
One diploid cell
produces 2 diploid
cells or one haploid
cell produces 2
haploid cells
New cells are
genetically identical to
original cell (except for
mutation)

13

A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis conserves the number of chromosome

sets, producing cells that are genetically identical
to the parent cell
Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes sets
from two (diploid) to one (haploid), producing cells
that differ genetically from each other and from the
parent cell
The mechanism for separating sister chromatids is
virtually identical in meiosis II and mitosis

14

A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

Three events are unique to meiosis, and all three

occur in meiosis l:

Synapsis and crossing over in prophase I:

Homologous chromosomes physically connect and
exchange genetic information
At the metaphase plate, there are paired homologous
chromosomes (tetrads), instead of individual replicated
chromosomes
At anaphase I of meiosis, homologous pairs move
toward opposite poles of the cell. In anaphase II of
meiosis, the sister chromatids separate

15

Mitotic Division of an Animal Cell

METAPHASE

ANAPHASE

Metaphase
plate

Spindle

Centrosome at Daughter
one spindle pole chromosomes

TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS

Cleavage
furrow

Nucleolus
forming

Nuclear
envelope
forming
16

G2 of Interphase
A nuclear envelope bounds
the nucleus.
The nucleus contains one or
more nucleoli (singular,
nucleolus).
Two centrosomes have
formed by replication of a
single centrosome.
In animal cells, each
centrosome features two
centrioles.
Chromosomes, duplicated
during S phase, cannot be
seen individually because
they have not yet condensed.
The light micrographs show dividing lung cells
from a newt, which has 22 chromosomes in
its somatic cells (chromosomes appear blue,
microtubules green, intermediate filaments
red). For simplicity, the drawings show only
four chromosomes.

G2 OF INTERPHASE

Centrosomes
(with centriole pairs)

Nucleolus

Chromatin
(duplicated)

Nuclear
Plasma
envelope membrane
17

Prophase
The chromatin fibers become
more tightly coiled, condensing
into discrete chromosomes
observable with a light
microscope.
The nucleoli disappear.
Each duplicated chromosome
appears as two identical sister
chromatids joined together.
The mitotic spindle begins to form.
It is composed of the centrosomes
and the microtubules that extend
from them. The radial arrays of
shorter microtubules that extend
from the centrosomes are called
asters (stars).
The centrosomes move away from
each other, apparently propelled
by the lengthening microtubules
between them.

PROPHASE

Early mitotic
spindle

Aster
Centromere

Chromosome, consisting
of two sister chromatids
18

Metaphase
Metaphase is the longest stage of
mitosis, lasting about 20 minutes.
The centrosomes are now at
opposite ends of the cell.
The chromosomes convene on the
metaphase plate, an imaginary
plane that is equidistant between
the spindles two poles. The
chromosomes centromeres lie on
the metaphase plate.
For each chromosome, the
kinetochores of the sister
chromatids are attached to
kinetochore microtubules coming
from opposite poles.
The entire apparatus of
microtubules is called the spindle
because of its shape.

METAPHASE
Metaphase
plate

Spindle

Centrosome at
one spindle pole
19

Anaphase
Anaphase is the shortest stage of
mitosis, lasting only a few minutes.
Anaphase begins when the two sister
chromatids of each pair suddenly part.
Each chromatid thus becomes a fullfledged chromosome.
The two liberated chromosomes begin
moving toward opposite ends of the cell,
as their kinetochore microtubules
shorten. Because these microtubules are
attached at the centromere region, the
chromosomes move centromere first (at
about 1 m/min).
The cell elongates as the
nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen.
By the end of anaphase, the two ends of
the cell have equivalentand
completecollections of chromosomes.

ANAPHASE

Daughter
chromosomes
20

Telophase
Two daughter nuclei begin to
form in the cell.
Nuclear envelopes arise from
the fragments of the parent
cells nuclear envelope and
other portions of the
endomembrane system.
The chromosomes become
less condensed.
Mitosis, the division of one
nucleus into two genetically
identical nuclei, is now
complete.

TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS

Cleavage
furrow

Nucleolus
forming

Nuclear
envelope
forming

21

Mitosis in a plant cell

Chromatine
Nucleus
Nucleolus condensing

1 Prophase.
The chromatin
is condensing.
The nucleolus is
beginning to
disappear.
Although not
yet visible
in the micrograph,
the mitotic spindle is
staring to from.

Chromosome

Metaphase. The
2 Prometaphase.
3
4
spindle is complete,
We now see discrete
and the chromosomes,
chromosomes; each
attached to microtubules
consists of two
at their kinetochores,
identical sister
are all at the metaphase
chromatids. Later
plate.
in prometaphase, the
nuclear envelop will
fragment.

5
Anaphase. The
chromatids of each
chromosome have
separated, and the
daughter chromosomes
are moving to the ends
of cell as their
kinetochore
microtubles shorten.

Telophase. Daughter
nuclei are forming.
Meanwhile, cytokinesis
has started: The cell
plate, which will
divided the cytoplasm
in two, is growing
toward the perimeter
of the parent cell.

22

Cytokinesis In Animal And Plant Cells

Cleavage furrow

Contractile ring of
microfilaments

100 m

Vesicles
forming
cell plate

Wall of
patent cell

1 m

Cell plate

New cell wall

Daughter cells
Daughter cells

(a) Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM)

(b) Cell plate formation in a plant cell (SEM)

23

Meiosis

Reduces the chromosome number such that

each daughter
Cell has a haploid set of chromosomes
Ensures that the next generation will have:
Diploid number of chromosome
Exchange of genetic information
(combination of traits
that differs from that of either parent)
24

Meiosis

Only diploid cells can divide by meiosis.

Prior to meiosis I, DNA replication occurs.
During meiosis, there will be two nuclear divisions, and the result will be
four haploid nuclei.
No replication of DNA occurs between meiosis I and meiosis II.

25

Meiosis
Interphase

Meiosis reduces the

number of chromosome
sets from diploid to
haploid
Meiosis takes place in
two sets of divisions

Meiosis I reduces the

number of chromosomes
from diploid to haploid
Meiosis II produces four
haploid daughter cells
Figure 13.7

Homologous pair
of chromosomes
in diploid parent cell

Chromosomes
replicate
Homologous pair of replicated chromosomes

Sister
chromatids

Diploid cell with

replicated
chromosomes

Meiosis I

1 Homologous
chromosomes
separate

Haploid cells with

replicated chromosomes
Meiosis II
2 Sister chromatids
separate

Haploid cells with unreplicated chromosomes

26

Meiosis Phases

Meiosis involves the same four phases seen in

mitosis
prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase
They are repeated during both meiosis I and
meiosis II.
The period of time between meiosis I and meiosis
II is called interkinesis.
No replication of DNA occurs during interkinesis
because the DNA is already duplicated.
27

Prophase I

Prophase I occupies more than 90% of the time required for meiosis
Chromosomes begin to condense
In synapsis, the 2 members of each homologous pair of chromosomes line
up side-by-side, aligned gene by gene, to form a tetrad consisting of 4
chromatids
During synapsis, sometimes there is an exchange of homologous parts
between non-sister chromatids. This exchange is called crossing over
Each tetrad usually has one or more chiasmata, X-shaped regions where
crossing over occurred

Nonsister
chromatids

Prophase I
of meiosis

Tetrad

Chiasma,
site of
crossing
over

28

Metaphase I

At metaphase I, tetrads line up at the metaphase plate, with one

chromosome facing each pole
Microtubules from one pole are attached to the kinetochore of one
chromosome of each tetrad
Microtubules from the other pole are attached to the kinetochore of the
other chromosome
PROPHASE I
Sister
chromatids

Tetrad

METAPHASE I

ANAPHASE I
Sister chromatids
remain attached

Centromere
(with kinetochore)

Chiasmata

Metaphase
plate

Spindle

Microtubule
attached to
kinetochore

Homologous chromosomes
(red and blue) pair and
exchange segments; 2n = 6

Homologous
chromosomes
separate

Tetrads line up

Pairs of homologous
chromosomes split up

29

Anaphase I

In anaphase I, pairs of homologous chromosomes separate

One chromosome moves toward each pole, guided by the
spindle apparatus
Sister chromatids remain attached at the centromere and
move as one unit toward the pole
PROPHASE I
Sister
chromatids

Tetrad

METAPHASE I

ANAPHASE I
Sister chromatids
remain attached

Centromere
(with kinetochore)

Chiasmata

Metaphase
plate

Spindle

Microtubule
attached to
kinetochore

Homologous chromosomes
(red and blue) pair and
exchange segments; 2n = 6

Homologous
chromosomes
separate

Tetrads line up

Pairs of homologous
chromosomes split up

30

Telophase I and Cytokinesis

In the beginning of telophase I, each half of the

cell has a haploid set of chromosomes; each
chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids
Cytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously, forming
two haploid daughter cells
In animal cells, a cleavage furrow forms; in plant
cells, a cell plate forms
No chromosome replication occurs between the
end of meiosis I and the beginning of meiosis II
because the chromosomes are already replicated

31

Prophase II

Meiosis II is very similar to mitosis

In prophase II, a spindle apparatus forms
In late prophase II, chromosomes (each still composed of
two chromatids) move toward the metaphase plate
TELOPHASE I AND
CYTOKINESIS

PROPHASE II

Cleavage
furrow

METAPHASE II

ANAPHASE II

Sister chromatids
separate

TELOPHASE II AND
CYTOKINESIS

Haploid daughter cells

forming

32

Metaphase II

At metaphase II, the sister chromatids are at the metaphase plate

Because of crossing over in meiosis I, the two sister chromatids of each
chromosome are no longer genetically identical
The kinetochores of sister chromatids attach to microtubules extending
from opposite poles
TELOPHASE I AND
CYTOKINESIS

PROPHASE II

Cleavage
furrow

METAPHASE II

ANAPHASE II

Sister chromatids
separate

TELOPHASE II AND
CYTOKINESIS

Haploid daughter cells

forming

33

Anaphase II

At anaphase II, the sister chromatids separate

The sister chromatids of each chromosome now move as
two newly individual chromosomes toward opposite poles
TELOPHASE I AND
CYTOKINESIS

PROPHASE II

Cleavage
furrow

METAPHASE II

ANAPHASE II

Sister chromatids
separate

TELOPHASE II AND
CYTOKINESIS

Haploid daughter cells

forming

34

Telophase II and Cytokinesis

In telophase II, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles

Nuclei form, and the chromosomes begin decondensing
Cytokinesis separates the cytoplasm
At the end of meiosis, there are four daughter cells, each with a
haploid set of unreplicated chromosomes
Each daughter cell is genetically distinct from the others and from the
parent cell
TELOPHASE I AND
CYTOKINESIS

PROPHASE II

Cleavage
furrow

METAPHASE II

ANAPHASE II

Sister chromatids
separate

TELOPHASE II AND
CYTOKINESIS

Haploid daughter cells

forming

35

GAMETOGENESIS

36

Oogenesis

Production of female sex cells by meiosis

In the fetal period, oogonia (2n ovarian stem cells) multiply by
mitosis and store nutrients
Primordial follicles appear as oogonia are transformed into
primary oocytes
Primary oocytes begin meiosis but stall in prophase I
From puberty, each month one activated primary oocyte
completes meiosis one to produce two haploid cells
The first polar body
The secondary oocyte
The secondary oocyte arrests in metaphase II and is ovulated
If penetrated by sperm the second oocyte completes meiosis
II, yielding:
One large ovum (the functional gamete)
A tiny second polar body
37

Oogenesis

38

Spermatogenesis

Figure 27.8b, c

39

Sexual Reproduction

Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles

A life cycle is the generation-to-generation sequence of
stages in the reproductive history of an organism
Key
Haploid
Diploid
n

Gametes
n

MEIOSIS

2n
Diploid
multicellular
organism

FERTILIZATION

Zygote

2n

Mitosis
(a) Animals

40

Sexual Reproduction - The Human Life Cycle

During fertilization,
sperm and ovum fuse
forming a diploid
zygote
The zygote develops
into an adult organism

Haploid gametes (n = 23)

Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)

Ovum (n)

Sperm
Cell (n)
FERTILIZATION

MEIOSIS

Ovary

Testis

Diploid
zygote
(2n = 46)

Mitosis and
development
Multicellular diploid
adults (2n = 46)

41