SENSORS ,SIGNAL PROCESSING

& DATA PRESENTATION

Transducers /sensors
Takes input information about the physical
variable to be measured and convert it into a
suitable form
S.No

Physical variable

Output

Change in
temperature

Change in
electrical
voltage

Pressure

Resistance

Flow of liquid

Capacitanc
e

Level of liquid

Inductance

Displacement

BASIC TYPES
Active transducer :does not require
external stimulation to work.
Examples: Thermocouples
,Piezoelectric accelerometers.
Passive transducer :requires
external supply to work.
Examples: Thermistor, Resistance
temperature detector,Straingauges.

Types of transducers based on applications

Displacement sensor
Speed sensor
Fluid flow sensor
Fluid pressure sensor
Liquid level sensor
Temperature sensor

Displacement sensors
Types :
1.Contact type: have direct contact
with the object
2.Non contact type : use laser
beam or ultrasonic beam for
detection.

1.

Potentiometer

Supply voltage = VS (Volts).

Output voltage = V0 = VS x (R12 / R) (Volts) [between terminals 2 & 1].
R = Total Resistance.
R12= Resistance between terminals 2 & 1.
Hence, output voltage is directly proportional to the input linear displacement of the slider.
CHANGE IN LINEAR DISPLACEMENT CHANGE IN VOLTAGE.

2.

Strain gauge element

STRAIN = = (Change in Length) / (Original Length)

Resistance change is directly proportional to strain

R = R G .
G is constant of proportionality termed as gauge factor.
Metal wire strain gauge has gauge factors of order-2.0.

Strain Gauge stretched Resistance increases.

Strain Gauge compressed Resistance decreases.

Linear variable differential transformer

ONE PRIMARY COIL and TWO SECONDARY

COILS,ONE CORE

Linear variable differential transformer

EMF induced in secondary coil 1=E1
EMF induced in secondary coil 2=E2
Net output voltage = E1-E2
MAGNETIC CORE MIDDLE-CENTER POSITION ,
E1=E2.
NET OUPUT VOLTAGE of secondary coils = (E1-E2) = 0 Volts.
MAGNETIC CORE UP POSITION LINEAR DISPLACMENT,
NET OUPUT VOLTAGE of secondary coils = (E1-E2) = (+VE).

E1 > E2.

MAGNETIC CORE DOWN POSITION LINEAR DISPLACMENT, E2 >E1

NET OUPUT VOLTAGE of secondary coils = (E1-E2) = (-VE).

Speed sensor
Optical method
(linear speed)

Tachogenerator(An
gular speed)

Speed = distance /time

CHANGE IN ANGULAR SPEED

CHANGE IN VOLTAGE

Fluid pressure sensor

Fluid flow sensor

Rotameter

Turbine meter

Liquid level sensor

Potentiometer float
gauge

Load cell

CHANGE IN LEVEL

CHANGE IN WEIGHT
CHANGE IN LOAD
CHANGE IN RESISTANCE OF
STRAIN GAUGE

Temperature sensors
sense temperature and gives a proportional output.
The output may be a resistance change or voltage or
current signal
Types of temperature sensors

1.
2.
3.
4.

Glass thermometer
Resistance thermometer (RTD )
Thermistor
Thermocouples

1.Glass thermometer
Liquid inside the tube
expands when it sense
temperature
Mercury : -35

C to +600

Alcohol : -80 o C to +70 o C

Pentane : -200 o C to +30 o C

Disadvantages
Fragile (easily
broken)
Slow reacting
Advantages :
Usable range = -35 o C to +600 o C Cheap
Reasonable
accuracy
Accuracy = 1 %

2.Resistance temperature detector

Sense the temperature and gives a resistance change as output
Resistance varies linearly with temperature
metal wire used are

PLATINUM, NICKEL, OR COPPER ALLOYS

R R (1 t )
t

Constant = Temperature Coefficient of Resistance.

Resistance of metal wire at temperature t- (C)

Resistance of metal wire at 0 (C)

TYPE

TEMPERATURE
COEFFICIENT - (/ C)

RANGE

PLATINUM
NICKEL
COPPER

0.0039 / C
0.0067 / C
0.0038 / C

-200 C to 850 C
-80 C to 300 C
-200 v to 250 C

CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE

CHANGE IN RESISTANCE

3.Thermistor
semiconductor temperature sensor made
from mixture of metal oxides.
Metal-Oxides used: CHROMIUM, COBALT, IRON,
MANGANESE & NICKEL.

range= -250 C to +650 C with

accuracy = 0.1%.

Resistance of THERMISTER
decreases very non-linearly with
increase in temperature

Advantag
es
Sensitivit
y

Accuracy

Disadvant
age
Nonlinearity
Selfheating

4.Thermocouple
,

When two different metals are joined together, a potential

difference occurs across the junction. The potential difference
across the junction depends on the two metals used and the
temperature of the junction

one junction (Cold Junction) is

kept at 0 (C)
EMF depends on the temperature
(C) of other junction (Hot
Junction).

Both at same temperature ----no E.M.F

TABLE-THERMOCOUPLES
SENSITIVITY
V/ C
63
53
41
6

RANGE ( C)

43

-180to 370

0 to 980
-180 to 760
-180 to 1260
0 to 1750

E, J, K & T
- Cheap,

MATERIAL
CHROMEL-CONSTANTAN
IRON-CONSTANTAN
CHEOMEL-ALUMEL
PLATINUM-PLATINUM/
RHODIUM 13%
COPPER-CONSTANTAN

E
J
K
R
T

Less Stable,
Small Life,
Accuracy=1.0 to 3.0
%.

TYPE

More Stable
Long-life,
Fast Response,
Accuracy = 1%.

Signal processor /conditioner classifications

Takes signal from the sensor and convert it

into a form suitable for display or
transmission to other places.
Examples
Small signal amplified Bigger signal.
Resistance change Current or Voltage
change.
Analogue signal to Digital signal.

Signal processor
examples :
1.Resistance to voltage converter

potential divider circuits.

Source Voltage = VS (volts)
Output voltage (V0) = [R/(R +
RT) X VS] (volts)

When
the
resistance
of
the
Thermister (RT) changes the output
voltage of Potential divider changes.

 Wheatstone bridge converter

In balanced condition , output voltage is zero
.if R1 changes ,it becomes unbalanced .

The voltage drop in

across AB =

output voltage = VO is:

The voltage drop in

across AD =

Analog to digital converter

process of converting the
analogue signals from the
sensors to digital form is called
Analogue to Digital Conversion
(ADC)

ADC stages:
.

Stage 1------ sampling

Stage 2.------ Analog to
digital
conversion

Resolution
The minimum change in input that can be detected (The Resolution),

Problems related to ADC

1. With an A/D converter having a word
length of 10 bits and the maximum
analogue signal input range 10V, what
will be the resolution?
2. A thermocouple gives an output of 0.4mv
for each degree change in temperature.
What will be the word length required
when its output passes through an A/D if
temperatures from 0 to 200C are to be
measured with a resolution of 0.5C?

ADC techniques

Single slope ADC

Dual slope ADC
Successive approximation ADC
Flash type ADC

Digital to analog conversion

1. Binary weighted resistor DAC
2. R/2R ladder DAC

Problems related to DAC

1. A microprocessor gives an output of
an 8-bit word. This is fed through an
8-bit D/A converter to a control
valve, which requires 6.0 V to be
fully open. If the fully open state is
to be indicated by the output of the
digital word (11111111) what will be
the change in output to the valve
when there is a change of 1 bit?

 The output voltage will be divided

into 2intervals.
Output = 6 V.
a change of 1bit is a change in the
output voltage of 6.0/ =0.023 V.