INTERACTION

AND
COORDINATION

1. What is interaction?
Interaction is one of the main characteristics of living things.
All living things interact with their environment; in other
words, they receive stimuli and respond to them.

There are different elements involved in interaction:

Stimuli are internal or external changes that can be detected and
provoke responses. We can distinguish two types of stimuli:
- Physical: pressure, temperature, sound, light,...
- Chemical: Presence or absence of chemical substances.
Receptors are structures which can receive external or internal
stimuli. In animals, the sense organs are sets of receptors.
Coordination systems: The information generated by the
receptors must be processed, in order to elaborate a response. This
is the function of the coordination systems (in animals, nervous
and endocrine systems).
Responsive organs (=effectors). These structures produce
responses. In animals they are muscles and glands.

Interaction functions are much more developed in animals than in

plants, although plants, of course, show them. We are going to
study now interaction in animals, and we will consider interaction
in plants later.
Activity 1. Give two examples of interaction processes in plants.

Interaction functions are much more developed in animals than in

plants, although plants, of course, show them. We are going to
study now interaction in animals, and we will consider interaction
in plants later.
Activity 1. Give two examples of interaction processes in plants.

Young plants bending towards the light

Dionaea, an insectivorous plant

2. Interaction and coordination in animals

As we know, interaction function is related basically to the
following processes:
Stimuli reception. This process is done by receptors, which
detect internal or external changes (stimuli, stimulus in singular).
In many cases, receptors are grouped, giving place to sensory
organs.
Information processing, carried out by the coordination systems:
nervous system and endocrine system. They can integrate
information from different sources, process it and elaborate
responses.
Response. Responses are carried out by responsive organs, also
called effectors: muscles and glands.

Activity 2. Complete the scheme with the following names:

Coordination systems, response, neural signal, stimulus,
receptors, signal processing, effectors.
6

6
1

3 (4)

Activity 2. Complete the scheme with the following names:

Coordination systems, response, neural signal, stimulus,
receptors, signal processing, effectors.
6

6
1

Stimulus

Receptors

3 (4)

Neural
signal

Coordination
systems (signal
processing)

Effectors

Response

Neural
signal

Receptors
Receptors are often grouped, forming sensory organs, responsible
for the senses: sight, smell, taste, hearing and touch.

Eyes are the sensory organs responsible for sight. They detect
light (photoreceptors). Light is focused on the retina, where is
captured by cells which generate neural signals.

2
3
4

7
5

Activity 3. Write the names of the different parts of the eye: pupil,
retina, lens, iris, cornea, conjunctiva, optic nerve.

Activity 3. Write the names of the different parts of the eye: pupil,
retina, lens, iris, cornea, conjunctiva, optic nerve.

Eyes are the sensory organs responsible for sight. They detect
light (photoreceptors). Light is focused on the retina, where is
captured by cells which generate neural signals.

In vertebrates, the nose is the organ in charge of smell. Smell

receptors inside the nose detect airborne chemicals. Arthropods
have other smell receptors in their appendages.

Taste is the sense related to the tongue, where taste receptors are
placed. These chemical receptors detect substances dissolved in
water.

Hearing is related to ears, where there are mechanical receptors

detecting sound.

Touch receptors are located in the skin (in most animals). They
detect pressure and contact (mechanical receptors), pain, and
temperature changes (thermoreceptors).

Touch receptors

Coordination systems
Animals have two coordination systems: the nervous system and the
endocrine system. They process information in order to produce
adequate responses, and they send orders to effectors. Then,
effectors execute the response.

Coordination systems
The nervous system is made up of neurons, cells which are
specialized in transmission of impulses. Neurons are grouped and
highly connected.
The endocrine system consist of glands (endocrine glands), which
produce hormones, chemical substances transported by the blood.

Coordination systems
The nervous system is made up of neurons, cells which are
specialized in transmission of impulses. Neurons are grouped and
highly connected.
The endocrine system consist of glands (endocrine glands), which
produce hormones, chemical substances transported by the blood.

The following table compares nervous and endocrine systems:

Nervous system

Endocrine system

Signals transmitted -Electrical signals (along

a neuron)
-Chemical signals
(neurotransmitters, in
synapses)

- Chemical signals
(hormones)

Speed of response

Rapid

Slow

Duration of
response

Brief

Long

What type of
functions does it
coordinate?

Functions which require

rapid responses (for
example, locomotion)

Functions with long-lasting

responses (growth,
development,...)

The nervous system: neurons

Neurons are the main cells of the nervous system. They are specialized
in transmission and processing of impulses (nerve signals). Then, there
are many connection between neurons, and also between neurons and
other cells (for example, muscle cells).
Here is a neuron picture:
3

5
1

6
2

Activity 4. Write the names of the different parts of the neuron:

cell body, node of Ranvier, nucleus, myelin sheath, dendrite,
axon, Schwanns cell, axon terminals.

Neurons

Direction of impulse transmission

Activity 4. Write the names of the different parts of the neuron: 1

cell body, 8 node of Ranvier, 2 nucleus, 7 myelin sheath, 3
dendrite, 4 axon, 6 Schwanns cell, 5 axon terminals.

There are connections between neurons, called synapses

(synapsis, in singular). Nerve impulses can pass from one neuron
to another through synapses, by means of chemicals called
neurotransmitters.

The nervous system: organization

Different types of animals can have very different nervous systems.

Jellyfish and polyps have a diffuse nervous system (nerve net),

without high concentrations of neurons.

The nervous system: organization

In other groups, such as arthropods, there are accumulations of

neurons, called ganglia, connected by nerve cord. Ganglia of the
anterior part of the body are fused, making up the brain.

The nervous system: organization

In Vertebrates, the nervous system has two main parts: the central
nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

The CNS is the main control centre in the body. It consists of the
brain and the spinal cord.

The nervous system: organization

In Vertebrates, the nervous system has two main parts: the central
nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

The PNS is a network of nerves extending from the CNS

throughout the body.

The nervous system: organization. The CNS

The brain is the main structure of the CNS. It contains a huge
accumulation of neurons very highly connected.
1
2
3

4
5

Activity 5. Write the names of the different parts in the figure:

cerebrum, spinal cord, meninges, skull, medulla, cerebellum.

The nervous system: organization. The CNS

Cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla are important parts of the brain.

The external layer of the cerebrum, with a very folded surface (in
mammals, especially in humans), is the cerebral cortex. It is
involved in functions such as thought, reasoning and planning.

The nervous system: organization. The CNS

The cerebellum, in the back part of the brain, is involved in

control of movements. The medulla (=medulla oblongata), in the
lowest part of the brain, is the connection between the brain and
the spinal cord.

The nervous system: organization. The PNS

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of nerves which go from
the brain or the spinal cord to to all parts of the body.

The nervous system: organization. The PNS

We can distinguish two types of nerves:
-Afferent (sensory) nerves go from the receptive organs to the CNS.
They carry impulses generated by the receptors.
-Efferent (motor) nerves go from the CNS to the responsive organs
(effectors). They carry impulses generated by the CNS to activate the
response.

The nervous system: organization. The PNS

Each nerve contains groups of axons which transport impulses from the
receptors to the CNS (sensory or afferent nerves), or from the CNS to
the effectors (motor or efferent nerves).

Coordination systems: the endocrine system

The endocrine system comprises different endocrine glands. These
glands produce and release hormones, which are transported by the
blood. Each hormone reaches its target cells and provokes in them a
specific effect, usually process regulation.

4
2

5 (6)

Activity 6. Match each number with the proper term: hormone,

bloodstream, process regulation, target cell, endocrine gland,
specific effect.

Coordination systems: the endocrine system

Hormone

2
Endocrine gland

Target cell
3

Bloodstream

5 (6)
Specific effect
(process
regulation)

Activity 6. Match each number with the proper term: hormone 2,

bloodstream 3, process regulation 6, target cell 4, endocrine gland
1, specific effect 5.

Coordination systems: the endocrine system

The following table presents three examples of hormones.

Hormone

Endocrine gland Function

which produces it

Growth hormone Pituitary gland

It promotes growth and cell division

Testosterone

Testicles

Testosterone regulates development

and functioning of testicles

Insulin

Pancreas

Insulin regulates glucose concentration

in blood

Activity 7. Look for information about another hormone and find

its function and which endocrine gland produces it.

The responsive organs: muscles and glands

The effectors are the structures or organs wich execute the response:
muscles and glands.
Then, there are two types of responses to stimuli: motor responses,
due to muscles, and secretory responses, due to glands.

Skeletal muscles are attached to the bones by tendons.

Smooth muscles can be around organs.
Muscles contract when they receive nerve impulses.

3. Interaction and coordination in plants

Plants receive stimuli and respond to them, although in plants
interaction and coordination are less developed than in animals.
Plants do not have a nervous system, but they produce hormones,
chemical messengers which coordinate and regulate processes such
as growth, flowering, germination,.

Activity 8. Auxins are plant hormones which promote stem growth.

What is the effect in this case?

Stimuli and responses in plants

Plants can detect different stimuli: light, temperature changes, gravity,
touch
In many cases, plant responses to stimuli are related to growth: when
a plant grows toward a stimulus, or away from it, that type of
response is called tropism (positive or negative tropism respectively).

This is an example of
positive phototropism: the
plant stem grows toward
the light.

Stimuli and responses in plants

This is an example of
positive geotropism: plant
roots grow toward gravity.

Thigmotropism is related to
touch or contact. Climbing plant
show positive thigmotropism:
they grow keeping in contact
with solid surfaces.

Stimuli and responses in plants

Plants can show other responses to stimuli, different from growth.
Nastic movements are temporary plant responses to stimuli, not
related to growth. Unlike tropisms, nastic movemetns are not
directional.

This is an example of nastic

movement: some carnivorous
plants close their leaves in
response to touch. They
capture insects this way.

Activity 9. Some plants open their flowers by day and close them
by night. Is this a tropism or a nastic movement? Explain.

4. Final activities
Activity 10. Draw a neuron, pointing its parts and writing their names.
Activity 11. Read each one of the following sentences, and decide if it
is true or false, justifying your decission:
Nerve signals are always electrical
A hormone can affect any cell of the body
If we use a microscope, we can see the neuron nuclei along a
nerve
Most plant stems show positive geotropism
In our body, touch is the only sense which contains mechanical
receptors
Activity 12. Compare the general organization of the nervous system in
a jellyfish, a grasshopper and a chimpanzee.

4. Final activities
Activity 13. Where are there more neuron bodies, in the cerebral cortex
or in the inner part of the cerebrum? Explain.
Activity 14. Write three examples of chemical stimuli which can be
detected by a person, and also the responses they can provoke.
Activity 15. There is a chemical, called abscisic acid, which promotes
leaf fall. What type of substance do you think abscisic acid is?
Activity 16. Write three examples of light stimuli received by different
animals, and also the responses they provoke.