RADAR

Functions of Radar
RADAR is a method of using
electromagnetic waves to remotesense the position, velocity and
identifying characteristics of targets.
Radar: Acronym for Radio Detection
and Ranging

Basic Principle of Operation

Radar measurement of range, or distance, is
made possible because of the properties of
radiated electromagnetic energy:

This energy normally travels through

space in a straight line, at a constant
speed
Electromagnetic energy travels through
air at approximately the speed of light
Reflection of electromagnetic waves

RADAR

Applications of radar
systems.
Civilian applications
Airport surveillance
Marine navigation
Weather radar
Altimetry
Aircraft landing
Security alarms
Speed measurement (police radar)
Geographic mapping

 Military applications
Air and marine navigation
Detection and tracking of aircraft, missiles,
and spacecraft
Missile guidance
Fire control
Provides information (mainly target azimuth,
elevation, range and velocity) to a firecontrol
system

 Scientific applications
Astronomy
Mapping and imaging
Precision distance measurement
Remote sensing of the environment

History of Radar
Radar was developed for military
purposes during W. W. II, were they
used radar to locate ships and
airplanes.
Today, radar is an essential tool for
predicting and analyzing the
weather.

Radar Equation
Two basic radar systems:
Monostatic radar : same antenna is used for
both transmit and receive.
Bistatic radar uses two separate antennas for
these functions.
Most radars are of the monostatic type, but in
some applications we use Bistatic type
Separate antennas are also sometimes used to
achieve the necessary signal isolation between
transmitter and receiver.

Radar Equation
If the transmitter radiates a power P through an
antenna of gain G, power density incident on the

target is

R is the distance to the target. The target will

scatter the incident power in various directions.
The ratio of the scattered power in a given
direction to the incident power density is defined
as the radar cross section,
Ps is the total power scattered by
the target,

 Since the target scatters as a source of finite size,

the power density of the reradiated field must
decay as
away from the target.
Thus the power density of the scattered field back
at the receive antenna be

Received Power :

Radar Equation

 Received power varies as

high-power transmitter and a sensitive low-noise
receiver are needed to detect targets at long
ranges.

Receivers are designed with minimum detectable

power , Pmin

Two Basic Radar Types

Pulse Transmission
Pulse - RADAR transmits a series of
pulses separated by non-transmission
intervals during which the radar
listens for a return.

Continuous Wave
Constantly emitting radar. Relative
motion of either the radar or the target
is required to indicate target position.
Frequency shift.

Pulse Transmission or Pulse

Radar
Pulse Width (PW)
Length or duration of a given pulse
Pulse Repetition Time (PRT=1/PRF)
PRT is time from beginning of one pulse to the
beginning of the next
PRF is frequency at which consecutive pulses
are transmitted.

PRT

Carrier
Freq.

Listening
Time

PW

PRT=1/PRF

Pulse Radar Components

Synchronizer

Transmitter
RF
t
Ou

Power
Supply

ANT.
Ech
o

In

Duplexer

Display Unit

Receiver

Antenna Control

1. Synchronizer:
a. Coordinates the entire system
b. Determines the timing of the transmitted pulse
c. Includes timers, modulator and central control.
3. Transmitter:
a. Generate the pulses at the proper RF (radio
frequency) for the radar.
4. Antenna:
a. Receives energy from the transmitter, radiates
it in the form of a highly directional beam and
receives the echoes.

5. Duplexer:
a. Allows one antenna to be used to transmit and
receive.
b. Prevents transmitted RF energy from going
directly to the receiver.
c. Tells the antenna to radiate or receive.
6. Receiver: receives incoming echoes from antenna,
detects and amplifies the signal, and sends them to
the display.
7. Display: Displays the received video to the operator.
8. Power Supply: Provides power to all the
components of the system.

Continuous Wave Radar

Employs continual RADAR transmission
Relies on the DOPPLER EFFECT
Second major type of radar.
Produces a constant stream of energy.
Cant distinguish distances (range) because
no interval between pulses.
Can distinguish between moving and nonmoving targets by using Doppler frequency
shifts.

 If the target has a velocity component along the

line of sight of the radar, the returned signal will
be shifted in frequency relative to the transmitted
frequency due to the Doppler effect.
If the transmitted frequency is fo , and the radial
target velocity is v, then the shift in frequency, or
the Doppler frequency, will be
c is the velocity of light
fo+fd - approaching target
fo-fd

away from the target

Doppler Frequency Shifts

Motion Away

Echo Frequency Decreases

Motion Towards

Echo Frequency Increases

Frequency expansion is the lowering of the echo frequency caused

by an opening target (target moving away). DOWN DOPPLER
Frequency compression is the raising of the echo frequency caused
by the closing target (target moving closer). UP DOPPLER

Continuous Wave Radar

Components
Transmitter

Antenna

CW
RF
Oscillator

Discriminator

AMP

OUT

IN

Mixer

Antenna
Indicator

1. Transmit/Receive Antennas. Since must operate

simultaneously, must be located separately so receiving
antenna doesnt pick up transmitted signal.
2. Oscillator or Power Amplifier. Sends out signal to
transmit antenna. Also sends sample signal to Mixer.
(used as a reference)
3. Mixer.
a. A sample of the transmitted RF energy is combined
with the received echo signal.
b. The two signal will differ because of the Doppler shift.
c. The output of the mixer is a function of the difference
in frequencies.

4. Amplifier. Increases strength of signal

before sending it to the indicator.
5. Discriminator.
a. Selects desired frequency bands for
Doppler shifts.
b. The unit will only allow certain frequency
bands so wont process stray signals.
6. Indicator. Displays data. Measures radial
velocity or the component inbound or
directly outbound. Range is not measured.

Types of Antenna
Radar antenna acts as the interface between the radar
system and free space through which radio waves are
transmitted and received.
The purpose of the radar antenna is to transduce free
space propagation to guided wave propagation during
reception and the opposite during transmission.
Two types of antenna
reflector mirror antenna
array antenna

Must Be 1/2 of the Wave Length for the maximum wave length
employed
Wide Beam pattern for Search, Narrow for Track

Beamwidth Vs. Accuracy

Beamwidth vs Accuracy

Ship A

Ship B

Beamwidth Vs. Accuracy

The size of the width of the beam (beam-width) determines the angular
accuracy of the radar. From figure we see that the target could be any
where in the beam to produce a return. Ship B can more accurately
determine where the target really is.
2. The function of the radar determines how narrow the beam-width is
needed.
a Search radars accuracy for range. (wide beam-widths at high
power)
b. Tracking or targeting radars require more accuracy (narrow beamwidths)
3. If the target is located on the center line of the beam lobe, the return
will be the strongest.

Determining Altitude

Altitude
Angle of Elevation

Altitude = slant range x sin0 elevation

Reflector Antenna

Parabolic Reflector

Basic paraboloid reflector; Truncated paraboloid;Orange-peel

paraboloid;Cylindrical paraboloid

Array Antenna
An array antenna is composed of multiple
element arrays for example, linear array, area
array or nonformal array. The element antennas
are half-wavelength dipoles, microstrip patches
and wave guide slot.

Waveguide Microwave
Junctions
At a certain portion in a waveguide
system, many a times it is necessary to
split all or part of microwave energy into
particular directions. This is achieved by
Waveguide Microwave Junctions.
Microwave T junctions are of three types
E plane
H plane
EH plane

E Plane Tee junction

Port 1 and 2 are collinear port, port 3 is E arm.

When TE10 mode is propagate in port 3 the two

output port 1 and 2 will have a phase shift of 180
deg.
Electric filed lines change their direction when they
come out from 1 and 2.
E plane tee also known as voltage or series junction.

 Scattering matrix (3 port)

180

H Plane Tee junction

Port 1 and 2 are collinear port, port 3 is H arm or side
arm.
Here magnetic field divides itself into arms, also
called the current junction

When TE10 mode is propagate in port 3 the electric

field do not change their direction when they come
out from port 1 and 2

E-H Plane tee (Hybrid)

Rectangular slot are cut along the width and
breadth of a waveguide.
Port 1 and 2 are collinear arms, port 3 is H arm,
port 4 is E arm.

This 4 port tee junction combines the power

dividing properties of both H plane and E plane
tee.

So all the 4 ports 1,2,3,4 are perfectly matched to the junction.

 After substituting these values

Coupled Transmission Lines/

Directional Coupler
When two unshielded transmission lines are
placed in close proximity to each other, a fraction
of the power present on the main line is coupled to
the secondary line.

The power coupled is a function of

The physical dimensions of the structure

Mode of propagation [TEM or non-TEM]
The frequency of operation
Direction of propagation of the primary power.

In these structures, there is a continuous

coupling between the electromagnetic fields of
the two lines.

Coupled Transmission Lines

(a) coaxial lines
(c) microstrip lines
striplines.

), (b), (c) edge-coupled structures.

d) broadside-coupled structure

(b) striplines,
(d) broadside

 Coupled lines can be

Symmetrical (i.e., both conductors have the same
dimensions) or asymmetrical.
Are placed in close proximity to each other so
that the electromagnetic fields can interact.
The closer the lines are placed together, the
stronger the interaction that takes place.
When one port is excited with a known signal, a
part of this signal appears at other ports, known
as desirable coupling
This is useful in realizing components like
directional coupler, filters..

 Level of coupling
Weak Coupling
[15-25 dB]

Medium Coupling
[15-6 dB]

Strong Coupling
[3-6 dB]

Application
Monitoring of signal (weak coupling)
Power divider (3 dB Coupling)
Filters (LPF, HPF, BPF)

Ports In Directional Coupler

Coupling factor: C
Transmission Factor: T
Directivity: D
Isolation: I

Parameters

Coupling factor indicates the fraction of

the input power that is coupled to the
output port.
Directivity is a measure of the
couplers ability to isolate forward
and backward
waves (or the coupled and uncoupled
Isolation
ports).is a measure of the power delivered
The uncoupled port.
Insertion loss accounts for the input
power delivered to the through port,
diminished by
power delivered to the coupled and

 Note the larger the coupling value, the smaller the

coupled power! For example:

A 3 dB coupler couples out 50% of the input

power.
A 6 dB coupler couples out 25% of the input
power.
A 10 dB coupler couples out 10% of the input
power.
A 20 dB coupler couples out 1.0% of the input
power.
A 30 dB coupler couples out 0.1% of the input
power.

Scattering Matrix
The scattering matrix of a four-port network is given
by
S11
S21
S31
S41

S12
S22
S32
S42

S13
S23
S33
S43

S14
S24
S34
S44

For all four ports matched, S11=S22=S33=S44=0

For reciprocal network, S12=S21, S31=S13, S32=S23,
S14=S41, S34=S43

 For lossless network, it satisfy unitary condition

Which results in many equations, we consider only the

important equations here, like multiplication of row 1
and column 2
.(1)

multiplication of row 4 and column 3

.(2)

 Multiply eq(1)

and eq(2) by

and subtract
-->

S14=0
Similarly

S23=0

 Self product of the matrix row and column

Let
(Transmission coefficient)

(Coupling coefficient)