GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY

Learning, Memory
and Forgetting

PART I: LEARNING

The Nature and Importance

of Learning
Learning refers to the relatively permanent
change in behavior that occurs as a result of
practice, experience or training.
Correct responses and proper or appropriate
behaviors are the result of effective and good
training or learning. On the other hand, incorrect
responses and misbehaviors are products of bad
training or learning.

Three Essential Elements of Learning

A.

Learning is a change in behavior, for better or for worse.

B.

It is a change that occurs through practice or experience;

changes in behavior due to maturation, sickness,
accidents, fatigue, drug intake are not learning.

C. The change in behavior must be relatively permanent,

that is, it must last for a considerable amount of time.

Theories of Learning

Psychology has proposed a number of

theories which attempt to explain why and
how people learn:
1. Connectionism
2. Classical Conditioning or Respondent
Conditioning
3. Operant Conditioning
4. Observational or Social Learning
5. Insight Learning

I. Connectionism
Proposed by Edward Lee
Thorndike
Claims that all learning is explained
by selection and connections or
bonds formed between stimuli and
responses.
It is the process through which
associations take place through trial
and error.
Applied through the laws of
learning: (1) law of readiness, (2)
law of exercise and (3) law of effect.

A. Law of Readiness
Learning occurs when the learner is
physiologically and psychologically prepared.
Examples:
A five-year old kid cannot be expected to compete in
a 15-kilometer run because he is not yet mature for
the task.
A student who keeps on thinking on how to pass
his/her algebra subject cannot be expected to give
full concentration to his/her psychology class.

B. Law of Exercise
Mastery learning can take place
through repetitions and rehearsals.
Review is important to easily learn
new concepts, principles and rules.
Practice makes perfect.
Examples:
A student who answers the activity
questions after each chapter will most
likely remember important information
and get higher grades.
A taekwondo subordinate might be
able to beat his/her master if he/she
would continuously practice his/her
skills.

C. Law of Effect
Learning easily takes place if the consequence
of a certain response is favorable and
satisfying.
Examples:
A child who was given a reward for returning the wallet of
a stranger would feel good about him/herself and would
maintain honesty.
A student who gave the correct answer during recitation
and was commended by the teacher (e.g. saying Very
Good! or Thats correct!) would most likely recite again
and would study harder.

II. Classical Conditioning

Proposed by Ivan Petrovich
Pavlov
Also known as Respondent
Conditioning
A neutral stimulus gradually
gains the ability to a elicit a
response because of its
pairing with the
unconditioned stimulus.

 There are four variables used in classical

conditioning:
Unconditioned Stimulus a natural stimulus which
automatically elicits a response.
Unconditioned Response the automatic response to
the unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus a neutral stimulus which at first
cannot elicit response but after pairing with the
unconditioned stimulus is able to elicit conditioned
response.
Conditioned response the learned response to the
conditioned stimulus.

 Concepts used in classical conditioning:

Stimulus generalization refers to giving similar
response to stimuli that resemble the original
stimulus.
Stimulus discrimination refers to giving
different responses to different stimuli.
Extinction the disappearance of learned
response or simply known as unlearning.
Spontaneous Recovery return of the
conditioned response or simply known as
relearning which occurs after extinction.

III. Operant Conditioning

Proposed by Burrhus Frederic
Skinner.
Puts emphasis on the
consequences or outcome of
behavior.
There is a need for a
performance of task before
reinforcement is given.
Also known as Instrumental
Learning because the task
becomes an instrument or tool to
receive reinforcement.

Reinforcement a stimulus that tends to

maintain or increase the strength of a response.
In simpler terms, it is a form of reward that is
given to increase the probability that a certain
behavior or response will be repeated.

Repetition of behavior or response is an

indication that learning has taken place.

Rules in giving reinforcements:

1. It should be given immediately, without delay to avoid
reinforcing incorrect responses.
2. It must be contingent upon behavior.

 Types of reinforcement according to

presentation:
Positive reinforcement a stimulus, which when
presented, increases the chance that the
response will be repeated.
Example: The professor gave plus points to students
who got a perfect score in the quiz.

Negative reinforcement a stimulus that has to

be terminated or withdrawn to increase the
likelihood that the response will be repeated.
Example: The professor exempted the students who
got an excellent grade in quizzes and other
requirements from taking the major exam.

 Schedules of reinforcement
can be either continuous or
intermittent:
Continuous reinforcement is
given after every response.
Intermittent reinforcement is
given in an irregular or
alternating pattern; can be
classified as interval or ratio.
Interval reinforcement a
scheduled reinforcement that takes
place at definite established time
intervals.
Ratio reinforcement a scheduled
reinforcement which occurs after a
certain number of responses.

 Four Classes of Schedules of

Reinforcement
1. Fixed Ratio a schedule anchored on a
specific number of responses.
Example: Car salesmen get additional 5%
commission when they are able to sell 10 cars.

2. Variable Ratio a schedule in which the

number of responses varies from one
reinforcement to the next.
Example: It is unpredictable when you can hit
the jackpot prize in a slot machine in a casino.

3. Fixed Interval a schedule in which a

response leads to reinforcement only after a
specific length of time.
Examples: Students' visits to the university
library show a decided increase in rate as the
time of final examinations approaches; Salaries
are given every 15th and 30th of the month.

4. Variable Interval a schedule in which the

time between reinforcement varies.
Examples: Checking your email, fishing

Observational or Social Learning

Proposed by Albert Bandura
Focuses on how humans
learn through observation
Learn through modeling and
imitation.

 Four Processes involved in Observational

Learning:
Attention the observer should focus attention to what
distinctive features of the model he/she wants to imitate.
Retention The observer should remember the
observed behavior of the model.
Motor reproduction The observer is able to perform
the task of imitating the model.
Motivation If the result of imitating the model is
pleasurable, such pleasant feeling serves as motivation
itself to continue imitating the model.

Insight Learning
Insight is a kind of learning in
which solution to a problem
comes suddenly as one discerns
the pattern or interrelationship of
one aspect of the situation with
another (Bustos,A.1999).
Aha Experience human beings
who solve a problem insightfully
usually experience a good
feeling; we utter the word aha
as we suddenly see the answer
to a problem.

Chimpanzee Insight Learning Tasks

Wolfgang Kohler used chimpanzee in his
experiments on how insight learning occurs. His
most popular experiment was with a chimpanzee
named Sultan.

PART II:
MEMORY

Memory and Its Processes

Memory the ability to remember information,
events, and experiences.
Three Processes of Memory:
1. Encoding the process of transforming sensory input or
information received into a code (e.g. visual, acoustic,
semantic) so that the nervous system can process it.
2. Storage the process wherein the encoded information
is maintained or saved over a period of time.
3. Retrieval the process of bringing to mind the
information that was stored in the memory. This is also
known as recalling.

Multi-Store Model of Memory

Information processing theory developed by Richard

Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin which states that our
memory starts with a sensory input that lasts for a
second or two. Our mind has three stages of memory:
(1) sensory memory, (2) short-term memory and (3)
long-term memory.

I. Sensory Memory
A very brief storage that immediately follows the
initial stimulation of a receptor. Memories are
stored and held by the senses.
Various names of sensory memory based on
the sense that is used:
iconic memory holds visual information up to a
second.
echoic memory hold auditory information or sound
data for 1 to 2 seconds.
haptic memory for touch
gustic memory for taste
olfactic memory for smell

II. Short-Term Memory

Also known as working memory.
The things we have in our awareness at any
one moment are being held here.
This has a capacity of 72 and a duration of 2 to
30 seconds.

III. Long-Term Memory

Involves processes of preserving almost
unlimited items of information over a long period
of time.
All the information in the long-term memory is
available for retrieval.
Two kinds of long-term memory:
Episodic memory consists of personal experiences that
happened within a definite period of time.
Semantic memory kind of memory essential for the use
of language. It involves recalling of general knowledge,
book learning, concepts, rules, principles and meanings.

Recall versus Recognition

To determine whether there is information
stored in the brain or none, there are two
ways which can be used:
Recall retrieving what is stored in the longterm memory without any reminder cues.
Free Recall answers can be given in no particular
order.
Serial Recall requires following a specific
arrangement or hierarchy.

Recognition involves a sense of familiarity

PART III:
FORGETTING

Theories of Forgetting
Forgetting the loss of information
previously stored in the long-term memory.
The theories of forgetting which try to
explain why people forget are:
Trace Decay Theory
Interference Theory

 Trace Decay Theory explains that with the

passage of time, and without usage or practice,
forgetting occurs. Forgetting is a result of the
automatic fading of the memory trace.
Interference Theory holds that between the
point of encoding an item in the memory and the
point of recalling, there are many interfering
materials that make it difficult for easy
remembering of needed information.
Retroactive Interference new information gets in the
way and blocks our recall of the previous ones.
Proactive Interference old information hinders us from
recalling new events and information.

Deficient Memory
Amnesia refers to loss of memory. It also implies
cases wherein there is faulty encoding and storing
of information so that new memories cannot be
formed. It is a memory deficit due either to loss of
what has been stored in the brain or the inability to
form new information.
Amnesia can either be biological (e.g. concussion,
head injuries, drugs, organic brain disorders, lack of
blood supply) or psychological (e.g. dissociation).

Practical Ways of Improving

Memory

Pay attention
Write it down
Rehearsal and repetition
Association
Visualization and formation of mental
image
Make use of memory aids like
mnemonics, keyword method and the like.

Can You Find the Hidden

Face?

THANK YOU!