Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M
FLUID MECHANICS
Sub Code : ME0412
Hrs / Week : 5Hrs
SEE
: 3Hrs
CIE : 50%
SEE : 50%
Max Marks : 100
Course Instructor :
VIJAYAKUMARA.M
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
NIE,MYSURU-570 008.
Course Outcomes:
Upon successful completion of this course, the student will
be able to:
1.Describe and explain the terminologies used in Fluid
Mechanics, principles of fluid statics, kinematics and
dynamics.
2.Apply Pascals law, continuity, momentum, energy,
boundary layer equations, and principles of dimensional
analysis to solve various numerical.
3.Analyse and evaluate the implications of the concepts
studied in real-life applications.
4. Demonstrate self-learning capability in learning the
course
Prerequisites
Basic Thermodynamics, Partial differentiation, Vector Calculus.
TEXT BOOK :
1.Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics by Munson, Young,Okiishi &
Huebsch, Wiley(India) Publications 5 th Edition ,2010

REFERENCE BOOKS:
1.Fluid Mechanics by Frank M.White ,Tata McGraw Hill,
5th Edition,2003
2.Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications ( In SI units) by
Yunus A.Cengel, John M.Cimbala- McGraw Hill Companies,
2nd reprint , 2008
Assessment Method:
1. Written Tests (Test, Mid Semester Exam & Make-Up Test) are
evaluated for 25 Marks each.
PART A
UNIT1
PROPERTIES OF FULIDS
Introduced to the fundamentals of the
physics governing fluids.

About the various laws governing fluids
at rest & in motion.
Apply the laws in actual problems
related to fluid flow.
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
determine the dimensions and units of physical
quantities.
identify the key fluid properties used in the analysis
of fluid behaviour.
calculate common fluid properties given appropriate
information.
explain effects of fluid compressibility.
use the concepts of viscosity, vapour pressure, and
surface tension.
CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Properties of fluids
1.3 Viscosity
1.4 Thermodynamics properties
1.5 Surface tension and Capillarity
1.6 Vapour Pressure
1.7 Fluid Statistics
Introduction
This chapter will begin with several concepts, definition,
terminologies and approaches which should be

understood by the students before continuing reading the
rest of this module.
Then, it introduces the student with typical properties of
fluid and their dimensions which are then being used
extensively in the next chapters and units like pressure,
velocity, density and viscosity.
Some of these can be used to classify type and
characteristic of fluid, such as whether a fluid is
incompressible or not or whether the fluid is Newtonian
or Non-Newtonian.
Fluid
Fluid is a substance that is capable of flowing. It has no
definite shape of its own. It assumes the shape of its

container. Liquids and gases are fluids.
Types of Fluids:
Fluids can be classified into five basic types. They are:

Ideal Fluid
Real Fluid
Newtonian Fluid
Non-Newtonian Fluid
Ideal Plastic Fluid
10
1. Ideal Fluid:
An Ideal Fluid is a fluid that has no viscosity. It is incompressible in nature.

Practically, no ideal fluid exists.
2. Real Fluid:
Real fluids are compressible in nature. They have some viscosity.
Examples: Kerosene, Petrol, Castor oil
3. Newtonian Fluid:
Fluids that obey Newtons law of viscosity are known as Newtonian Fluids.
For a Newtonian fluid, viscosity is entirely dependent upon the temperature
and pressure of the fluid.
Examples: water, air, emulsions
4. Non-Newtonian Fluid:
Fluids that do not obey Newtons law of viscosity are non-Newtonian fluids.
Examples: Flubber, Oobleck (suspension of starch in water)
5.Ideal Plastic Fluid:
A fluid, in which shear stress is more than the yield value and shear stress is
proportional to the rate of shear strain.

11
Fluid
A fluid is a substance in the gaseous or liquid form.
Distinction between solid and fluid?
Solid: can resist an applied shear by deforming. Stress is
proportional to strain.
Fluid: deforms continuously under applied shear. Stress is
proportional to strain rate.
Solid
Fluid
12
Fluid
Stress is defined as the
force per unit area.

Normal component:
normal stress.
In a fluid at rest, the
normal stress is called
pressure.
Tangential component:
shear stress.
13
Fluid
A liquid takes the shape of
the container it is in and

forms a free surface in the
presence of gravity.
A gas expands until it
encounters the walls of the
container and fills the
entire available space.
Gases cannot form a free
surface .
Gas and vapour are often
used as synonymous
words.
14
Properties
Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
Familiar: pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m.
Less familiar: viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of
elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, vapour pressure,

surface tension.
Intensive properties are independent of the mass of the system.
Examples: temperature, pressure, and density.
Extensive properties are those whose value depends on the
size of the system. Examples: Total mass, total volume, and
total momentum.
Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific
properties. Examples include specific volume v = V/m and
specific total energy e=E/m.
15
Dimensions and Units

Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions.
The magnitudes assigned to dimensions are called units.
Primary dimensions include: mass m, length L, time t, and
temperature T.
Secondary dimensions can be expressed in terms of primary
dimensions and include: velocity V, energy E, and volume
V.
Unit systems include English system and the metric SI
(International System). We'll use both.
Dimensional homogeneity is a valuable tool in checking
for errors. Make sure every term in an equation has the
same units.
Unity conversion ratios are helpful in converting units.
Use them.
16
1.1 Introduction
Fluid mechanics is that branch of science which deals
with the behaviour of the fluids (liquids or gases) at

rest as well as in motion. Thus this branch of science
deals with the static, kinematics and dynamic aspects
of fluids.
The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics.
The study of fluids in motion, where pressure forces
are not considered, is called fluid kinematics
If the pressure forces are also considered for the
fluids in motion, that branch of science is called fluid
dynamics.
17
1.2 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

1.2.1 Density or Mass Density.
The ratio of the mass of a fluid to its volume. It is denoted
the symbol (rho).
in SI unit is kg per cubic meter, i.e., kg/m3.
(The value of density of water is 1 gm/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3.)
18

1.2.2 Specific Weight or Weight Density.
Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the ratio
between the weight of a fluid to its volume. Thus weight
per unit volume of a fluid is called weight density and it is
denoted by the symbol () .
The value of specific weight or weight density () for water
is 9.81 x 1000 Newton/m3 (or Kg/m2.s2) in SI units.
19
1.2.3 Specific Volume.
Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a

fluid occupied by a unit mass or volume per unit mass of a
fluid is called specific volume. Mathematically, it is
expressed as
Thus specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. It is
expressed as m3/kg. It is commonly applied to gases.
20

1.2.4 Specific Gravity.
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density
(or density) of a fluid to the weight density (or density) of a
standard fluid. For liquids, the standard fluid is taken water
and for gases, the standard fluid is taken air. Specific
gravity is also called relative density. It is dimensionless
quantity and is denoted by the symbol S.
21
1.3 Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual
deformation by shear stress or tensile stress. For liquids, it corresponds

to the informal notion of "thickness".
For example, honey has a higher viscosity than water.
Viscosity is due to friction between neighbouring parcels of the fluid
that are moving at different velocities.
When fluid is forced through a tube, the fluid generally moves faster
near the axis and very little near the walls, therefore some stress (such
as a pressure difference between the two ends of the tube) is needed to
overcome the friction between layers and keep the fluid moving.
For the same velocity pattern, the stress is proportional to the fluid's
viscosity.
The shear viscosity of a fluid expresses its resistance to shearing flows,
where adjacent layers move parallel to each other with different speeds.
22
A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress

. is known as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid
In the real world, zero viscosity is observed
only at very low temperatures, in super
. fluids
Otherwise all fluids have positive viscosity.
If the viscosity is very high, such as in
pitch, the fluid will seem to be a solid in the
.short term
In common usage, a liquid whose viscosity
is less than that of water is known as a
mobile liquid, while a substance with a
viscosity substantially greater than water is
.simply called a viscous liquid
23
1.3 VISCOSITY
Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which
offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid
over another adjacent layer of the fluid. When two layers
of a fluid, a distance ' dy' apart, move one over the other
at different velocities, say u and u + du as shown in Fig.
1.1, the viscosity together with relative velocity causes a
shear stress acting between the fluid layers.
24
25
26
If the speed of the top plate is small enough,

the fluid particles will move parallel to it,
and their speed will vary linearly from zero
. at the bottom to u at the top
Each layer of fluid will move faster than
the one just below it, and friction between
them will give rise to a force resisting
. their relative motion
In particular, the fluid will apply on the top
plate a force in the direction opposite to its
motion, and an equal but opposite to the
.bottom plate
An external force is therefore required in
order to keep the top plate moving at
.constant speed
27
Friction between the fluid and the moving boundaries
causes the fluid to shear.

Laminar shear of fluid between two plates. The force
required for this action is a measure of the fluid's
viscosity.
28
29
In a general parallel flow (such as could occur in a straight pipe),

the shear stress is proportional to the gradient of the velocity
30
1.3 VISCOSITY
Where (called mu) is constant proportionality and is known as

the co-efficient of dynamic viscosity or only viscosity du/dy
represents the rate of shear strain or shear deformation or
velocity gradient
The viscosity is also defined as the shear stress required to
produce unit rate of shear strain.
31
1.3 VISCOSITY
The viscosity units:
32
1.3 VISCOSITY
Kinematic Viscosity:
It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and
density of fluid. It is denoted by the Greek symbol (v) called
'nu'. Thus, mathematically:
33
1.4 Thermodynamic properties

Fluid consist of liquids or gases.
But gases are compressible fluids.
With the change of pressure and temperature, the gases
undergo large variation in density.

The relationship between pressure(absolute),specific
volume and temperature (absolute) of a gas is given by
equation of state as
pv=RT or p/=RT
34
35
36
Universal Gas Constant
37
1.5 Surface tension

The phenomenon of surface tension arises due to the two kinds
of intermolecular forces .
(i) Cohesion: The force of attraction between the molecules of a
liquid by virtue of which they are bound to each other to remain
as one assemblage of particles is known as the force of
cohesion. This property enables the liquid to resist tensile stress.
(ii)Adhesion: The force of attraction between unlike molecules,
i.e. between the molecules of different liquids or between the
molecules of a liquid and those of a solid body when they are in
contact with each other, is known as the force of adhesion. This
force enables two different liquids to adhere to each other or a
liquid to adhere to a solid body or surface.
38
Surface tension is defined as force per unit length, and its
unit is N/m.
, R is the radius of the droplet, is the surface tension

p is the pressure difference between the inside and outside pressure
:The force developed around the edge due to surface tension along the line
Fsurface=2 R
:This force is balanced by the pressure difference p
F pressure =pR2
39
Now, equating the Surface Tension Force to the Pressure
Force,
We can estimate p = pi pe:
p= 2/R
The surface tension forces is neglected in many
engineering problems since it is very small.
40
41
42
Some important examples of
phenomenon of surface tension are as

follows:
1) Rain drops
2) Rise of sap in a tree
3) Bird can drink water from ponds
4) Collection of dust particles on water
surface
5) Break up of liquid jets
43
1.5 Surface tension and Capillarity

Surface tension: Liquid droplets behave
like small spherical balloons filled with

liquid, and the surface of the liquid acts
like a stretched elastic membrane under
tension.
The pulling force that causes this is
due to the attractive forces between
molecules called surface tension s.
Attractive force on surface molecule is
not symmetric.
Repulsive forces from interior
molecules causes the liquid to minimize
its surface area and attain a spherical
shape.
44
Capillary effect is the rise or fall
of a liquid in a small-diameter
tube.
The curved free surface in the
tube is called the meniscus.
Water meniscus curves up
because water is a wetting fluid.
Mercury meniscus curves down
because mercury is a non wetting
fluid.
Force balance can describe
magnitude of capillary rise.
45
Adhesion > Cohesion
Cohesion >Adhesion
46
H: is the height or capillary rise,

R: is the radius of the tube (d=2R)
: is the angle of contact between liquid and solid.
The weight of the fluid is balanced with the vertical
force caused by surface tension.

cos d=g/4d2H
H=4 cos / gd
For clean glass in contact with water, = 0, and
thus as R decreases, H increases,giving a higher

rise. (H = 4.5mm in a tube of 5mm diameter in
water).
For a clean glass in contact with Mercury, , =
130, and thus H is negative or there is a push down
of the fluid. (H = -1.4mm in a tube of 5mm
diameter in mercury)
47
48
1.6 Vapour Pressure

Vapour Pressure Pv is defined as the pressure exerted by
its vapour in phase equilibrium with its liquid at a given

temperature.
If P drops below Pv, liquid is locally vapourized, creating
cavities of vapour.
Vapour cavities collapse when local P rises above P v.

Collapse of cavities is a violent process which can
damage machinery.
Cavitation is noisy, and can cause structural vibrations.

49
Measure of the tendency for liquid particles to enter gas
phase at a given temp.

A measure of stickiness of liquid particles to each other
50
Formation of a bubble is opposed by the

pressure of the atmosphere
51
52
53
54
How Vapour Pressure is Measured

mm + 120 mm = 880 mm Hg 760
55
56
1.6 Vapour Pressure

A liquid in a closed container is subjected to a partial
vapour pressure in the space above the liquid due to the

escaping molecules from the surface;
It reaches a stage of equilibrium when this pressure reaches
saturated vapour pressure.
Since this depends upon molecular activity, which is a
function of temperature, the vapour pressure of a fluid also

depends on its temperature and increases with it.
If the pressure above a liquid reaches the vapour pressure
of the liquid, boiling occurs; for example if the pressure is

reduced sufficiently boiling may occur at room temperature.
57
58
Fluid Statics
Fluid Pressure at a Point
Pascals law
Pressure variation in a static fluid
SLE: Absolute,Gauge,Atmospheric and
Vacuum Pressures
59
Fluid Statics
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid
per unit area.
Units of pressure are N/m2, which is called a pascal (Pa).

Since the unit Pa is too small for pressures encountered in
practice, kilopascal (1 kPa = 103 Pa) and megapascal

(1 MPa = 106 Pa) are commonly used.
Other units include bar, atm, kgf/cm2, lbf/in2=psi.

60
Pressure at a point
Pressure is the compressive force per unit area ant it gives
the impression of being a vector.

Pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all
directions.
Pressure has a magnitude, but not a specific direction, and
thus it is a scalar quantity.
61
Variation of Pressure with Depth

In the presence of a gravitational field,
pressure increases with depth because

more fluid rests on deeper layers.
To obtain a relation for the variation of
pressure with depth, consider a
rectangular fluid element of height z,
length x and a unit depth y.
Force balance in the vertical z-direction
gives
maz 0
P2 xy P1xy g xyz 0
Where W=mg=g x y z, z=z2-z1

Dividing by x y and rearranging gives
P P2 P1 g z s z
62
Variation of Pressure with Depth

Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape of
the container.
Pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a
given fluid.
63
Pascals Law
Pressure applied to a confined
fluid increases the pressure

throughout by the same amount.
In picture, pistons are at same
height:
Ratio A2/A1 is called ideal
mechanical advantage of the

hydraulic lift.
64
How does the pressure at a point vary with orientation of
the plane passing through the point?
65
Remember:
No shearing forces.
All forces at right angles to
the surfaces.
For simplicity in our Free
Body Diagram, the xpressure forces cancel and
do not need to be shown.
Thus to arrive at our solution
we balance only the the y
and z forces:
.Pressure at any point is the same in all directions

66
Variation of pressure vertically in a fluid under Gravity
67
68
Equality of Pressure at the Same Level in

a Static Fluid
69
70
General Equation for Variation of Pressure

in a Static Fluid
The forces acting on the element are:
pA acting at right - angles to the end of
the face at z
(p + dp) A acting at right - angles to the
end of the face at z + dz
mg= A dsg
There are also forces from the
surrounding fluid acting normal to these

sides of the element.
For equilibrium of the element the
resultant of forces in any direction is
zero.
71
72
73
PRESSURE AND HEAD
74
75
Actual,Gauge and Vacuum pressure

Actual pressure at a give point is called the
absolute pressure.
Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated
to read zero in the atmosphere, and therefore

indicate gauge pressure, Pgauge=Pabs - Patm.
Pressure below atmospheric pressure are called
vacuum pressure, Pvac=Patm - Pabs.

76
77

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FLUID MECHANICS

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

Huebsch, Wiley(India) Publications 5 th Edition ,2010

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

Introduced to the fundamentals of the

physics governing fluids.

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

terminologies and approaches which should be

definite shape of its own. It assumes the shape of its

Fluids can be classified into five basic types. They are:

An Ideal Fluid is a fluid that has no viscosity. It is incompressible in nature.

proportional to the rate of shear strain.

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

force per unit area.

A liquid takes the shape of

the container it is in and

elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, vapour pressure,

Dimensions and Units

with the behaviour of the fluids (liquids or gases) at

1.2 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

1.2 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

1.2 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

1.2.3 Specific Volume.

Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

1.2 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

deformation by shear stress or tensile stress. For liquids, it corresponds

A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

If the speed of the top plate is small enough,

Friction between the fluid and the moving boundaries

causes the fluid to shear.

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

In a general parallel flow (such as could occur in a straight pipe),

Where (called mu) is constant proportionality and is known as

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

1.4 Thermodynamic properties

undergo large variation in density.

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

Universal Gas Constant

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

1.5 Surface tension

Surface tension is defined as force per unit length, and its

, R is the radius of the droplet, is the surface tension

Now, equating the Surface Tension Force to the Pressure

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

Fluid Mechanics DOME NIE Vijayakumara.M

Some important examples of

phenomenon of surface tension are as

1.5 Surface tension and Capillarity

like small spherical balloons filled with