Radar Basics

INTRODUCTION
CONTRACTION OF THE WORDS RADIO

DETECTION AND RANGING
RADAR IS AN ELECTROMAGNETIC SYSTEM FOR
THE DETECTION AND LOCATION OF REFLECTING
OBJECTS SUCH AS AIRCRAFT, SHIPS, SPACECRAFT,
VEHICLES , PEOPLE AND NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
OPERATES BY RADIATING ENERGY INTO SPACE
AND DETECTING THE ECHO SIGNAL REFLECTED
FROM AN OBJECT OR TARGET
REFLECTED ENERGY INDICATES PRESENCE,
LOCATION AND OTHER INFORMATION, HEIGHT ETC
INTRODUCTION
Radar can perform its function at long
or short distances and under
conditions impervious to optical and
infrared sensors. It can operate in
darkness, haze, fog, rain and snow.
Its ability to measure distance with
high accuracy in all weather is one of
the most important attributes.
INTRODUCTION
Some Radars have to detect targets at
ranges as short as the distance from
behind the wickets to the bowlers
delivery (to measure the speed of a
delivery), while other radars have to
operate over distances as great as the
distances to the nearest planets.
Thus, a radar might be small enough
to hold in the palm of one hand or
larger than a football field .
INTRODUCTION
Radar targets might be aircraft, ships,
or missiles; but radar targets can also
be people, birds, insects,
precipitation, clear air turbulence,
ionized media, land features
(vegetation, mountains, roads, rivers,
airfields, buildings, fences, power
line poles), sea, ice, icebergs, buoys,
underground features, meteors,
aurora, spacecraft and planets.
INTRODUCTION
Radar is used to detect aircraft, guide
supersonic missiles, observe and
track weather patterns, and control
flight traffic at airports. It is also
used in burglar alarms, garage door
openers, and police speed detectors.
INTRODUCTION
Radar systems provided the major
incentive for the development of
microwave technology because they
give better resolution for radar
instruments at higher frequencies. Only
the microwave region of the spectrum
could provide the required resolution
with antennas of reasonable size. The
ability to focus a radiated wave sharply
is what makes microwaves so useful in
radar applications.
INTRODUCTION
In addition to measuring the range to
a target as well as its angular
direction, a radar can also find the
relative velocity of a target either by
determining the rate of change of the
range measurement with time or by
extracting the radial velocity from the
Doppler frequency shift of the echo
signal.
INTRODUCTION
If the location of a moving target is
measured over a period of time, the
track, or trajectory, of the target can be
found from which the absolute velocity
of the target and its direction of travel
can be determined and a prediction can
be made as to its future location.
Properly designed radars can determine
the size and shape of a target and
might even be able to recognize one
type or class of target from another.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
RADIO DETECTION AND

RANGING
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
RADAR IS A CLASSIC EXAMPLE OF AN
ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING SYSTEM THAT
UTILIZES MANY OF
THE SPECIALIZED
ELEMENTS OF TECHNOLOGY PRACTICED BY
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS , INCLUDING
SIGNAL PROCESSING, DATA PROCESSING,
WAVEFORM DESIGN, ELECTROMAGNETIC
SCATTERING, DETECTION, PARAMETER
ESTIMATION, INFORMATION EXTRACTION,
ANTENNAS, PROPAGATION, TRANSMITTERS
AND RECEIVERS
BASIC PRINCIPLE
BASIC PRINCIPLE
T x generates EM wave radiated in space by
antenna.
Portion of T x energy intercepted by the
target and re-radiated in many directions.
Re-radiation directed back towards radar
collected by radar antenna delivered to
Receiver
Processed to detect presence of target and
determine its location.
Single antenna used time shared basis when
radar waveform repetitive series of pulses.
BASIC PRINCIPLE
Range or distance to a target found by
measuring the time it takes for the radar
signal to travel to the target and return back.
Targets location in angle can be found from
the direction the narrow beamwidth radar
antenna points when the received signal is of
maximum amplitude.
If target is in motion than shift of frequency
determined.
PRINCIPLES
Radar operates on the 3,000 to 10,000 MHz
frequency bands. (super high frequency SHF)
Electromagnetic energy radiating outward from a
source is reflected back by objects in its path.
The time difference between transmission (trace)
and reflection (echo) is measured giving an
accurate indication of an objects distance.
Distance, azimuth, and elevation can be used to
fix the objects position in three dimensional
space.
Signal timing is critical to accuracy. (one
microsecond error results in a distance error of
almost 500ft.)
As a result position accuracy is directly related to
the accuracy of the timing device used.
What information RADAR can give?
Target
Target
Target
Target
range (distance)
height (altitude)
speed
identity
HOW RADAR WORKS

A radar system (ground-based) has a transmitter
that emits radio waves or microwaves signal.
The signal hit airplane and reflect back.
Ground-based radar picks up reflected signal during
a break between transmissions.
The time taken for the reflected signal to return
back enables a computer calculate how far the
object is (range).
The aircraft data then sent and shown on a Radar
Display.
Most conventional aircraft have a rounded shape. This shape creates a

very efficient radar reflector. Means that no matter where the radar
signal hits the plane, some of the signal gets reflected back
TYPES OF RADAR
TYPES OF RADAR
TYPES OF RADAR
TYPES OF RADAR
TYPES OF RADAR
TYPES OF RADAR
TYPES OF RADAR
TYPES OF RADAR
Fig: X band SAR image of B-52 aircraft sitting
TYPES OF RADAR
Fig: ISAR image of a ship with X band radar
TYPES OF RADAR
ISAR image of a commercial ship (17000 ton)
obtained with an X band radar having 2 meter
resolution. The vertical scale in this image is slightly
exaggerated. Note that radar eyes are not optical
eyes yet useful information can be obtained from a
series of such images. Pitch motion causes top of
masts to have higher velocity than the bottom of the
masts or superstructure. These differences in
velocity causes different Doppler shifts. Resolution
in Doppler allows masts to be imaged. Also Roll
and Yaw motion provide height information, etc .
http://weather.noaa.gov/radar/radinfo/radinfo.html
RADAR ANTENNA
CONFIGURATION
Bistatic : the transmit and receive antennas are at

different locations as
viewed from the target (e.g., ground transmitter and
airborne receiver).
Monostatic : the transmitter and receiver are
colocated as viewed from
the target (i.e., the same antenna is used to transmit
and receive).
Quasi-monostatic : the transmit and receive
antennas are slightly
separated but still appear to be at the same location
as viewed from the
RECEIVER ANTENNA
C TE D
E
L
F
RE
SE
PU L
TARGET
D
E
T
TR
IT
M
S LSE
N
A PU
TRANSMITTER ANTENNA
Bistatic
Monostatic
TARGET
ED
T
EC E
L
F
V
RE WA
RECEIVER ANTENNA
D
E
T
IT
M
E
S
N AV
A W
TR
TRANSMITTER ANTENNA
Quasi - monostatic
RANGE TO A TARGET
MAXIMUM UNAMBIGUOUS
RANGE
MAXIMUM UNAMBIGUOUS
RANGE
UNAMBIGUOUS RANGE
RADAR WAVEFORMS
RADAR WAVEFORMS
RADAR WAVEFORMSc
are separated a distance half this value or 2.

The factor of one half results from the two
way travel of the radar wave, eg when = 1 s,
two equal size targets can be resolved if they are
separated by 150 meters.
A very long pulse is needed for some long range
radars to achieve sufficient energy to detect small
targets at long range long pulse has poor
resolution in range dimension pulse compression
used to obtain resolution of a short pulse.
RADAR WAVEFORMS
Continuous wave (CW) waveforms have also been used in
radar. Since they have to receive while transmitting, CW
radars depend on the doppler frequency shift of the echo
signal, caused by a moving target, to separate in the
frequency domain the weak echo signal from the large
transmitted signal and the echoes from fixed clutter (land,
sea, weather), as well as to measure the radial velocity of
the target.
A simple CW radar does not measure range. Can obtain
range by modulating the carrier with frequency or phase
modulation, eg FM-CW waveform used in radar altimeter
that measures height (altitude) of an aircraft above the
earth.
RADAR WAVEFORMS
Pulse radars that extract the Doppler frequency
shift are called either Moving Target Indication
(MTI) or pulse doppler radars, depending on their
particular values of pulse repetition frequency and
duty cycle.
An MTI radar has a low prf and a low duty cycle.
A pulse doppler radar, on the other hand, has a
high prf and a high duty cycle discuss later.
Almost all radars designed to detect aircraft use
the doppler frequency shift to reject large
unwanted echoes from stationary clutter.
PULSE WAVEFORM
BASIC RADAR EQUATION
Figure 4.2 (p. 101)

Flux density produced by an isotropic source.
Satellite
Communications, 2/E by
Timothy Pratt, Charles
Bostian, & Jeremy Allnutt
Copyright 2003 John
Figure 4.3 (p. 102)
Power received by an ideal antenna with area A m2. Incident flux density is F = Pt/4R2 W/m2. Received power is Pr = F X A = PtA/4R2 W.
Satellite
Communications, 2/E by
Timothy Pratt, Charles
Bostian, & Jeremy Allnutt
Copyright 2003 John
Fig :
(a) Single transmission path with parameters used in Friis

transmission formula.
(b) and (c) Double-path geometry used in obtaining radar equation.
A stealth aircraft is made up of completely flat

surfaces and very sharp edges. When a radar signal
hits a stealth plane, the signal reflects away at an
angle. Surfaces on a stealth aircraft also can absorb
radar energy as well. So, this aircraft become invisible.
F-22 Raptor
B-2 Spirit stealth

bomber of the U.S
Air Force
An F-117 Nighthawk stealth strike aircraft
However, some military aircraft are

designed and constructed to be nonreflective - the so-called stealth
aircraft.
RADAR CROSS SECTION

The ability of a target to scatter (or
reflect) energy is characterized by its
scattering cross section (also
called the radar cross section). The
scattering cross section has the units
of area and can be measured
experimentally.
RADAR CROSS SECTION

The scattering cross section is
the equivalent area intercepting the
amount of power that, when
scattering isotropically, produces at
the radar a power density that is equal
to that scattered or (reflected) by the
actual target.

The radar cross section has units of
area, but it can be misleading to
associate the radar cross section
directly with the targets physical
size. Radar cross section is more
dependent on the targets shape
than on its physical size as will be
discussed later.

Eq (1.9); or the effective area is held
constant, as implied by Eq (1.10). For
Eq (1.7) to be independent of
frequency, two antennas have to be
used. The transmitting antenna has
to have a gain independent of
wavelength and the receiving
antenna has to have an effective
aperture independent of wavelength.
(This is seldom done.)

These simplified versions of the radar
equation do not adequately describe the
performance of actual radars. Many
important factors are not explicitly included.
The simple form of the radar range equation
predicts too high a value of range,
sometimes by a factor of two or more. Later
the simple form of the radar equation is
expanded to include other factors equation
than becomes in better agreement with
observed range performance of actual
radars.
RADAR BLOCK
DIAGRAM
BASIC PARTS OF A
RADAR
Figure (Slide 61) is a very elementary

basic block diagram showing the
subsystems usually found in a radar.
The Transmitter, which is shown as a
power amplifier, generates a suitable
waveform for the particular job the
radar is to perform. It might have an
average power as small as milliwatts or
as large as megawatts. (The average
power is a far better..
[contd]
BASIC PARTS OF A
RADAR
Indication of the capability of a
radars performance than is its
peak power.) Most radars use a
short pulse waveform so that a
single antenna can be used on a
time shared basis for both
transmitting and receiving.
BASIC PARTS OF A RADAR

The function of the duplexer is to
allow a single antenna to be used
by protecting the sensitive
receiver from burning out while
the transmitter is on and by
directing the received echo signal
to the receiver rather than to the
transmitter.

The antenna is the device that allows
the transmitted energy to be propagated
into space and then collects the echo
energy on receive. It is almost always a
directive antenna, one that directs the
radiated energy into a narrow beam to
concentrate the power as well as to
allow the determination of the direction
to the target. An antenna that produces
a narrow directive beam on transmit.
[contd]

Usually has a large area on
receive to allow the collection of
weak echo signals from the
target. The antenna not only
concentrates the energy on
transmit and collects the echo
energy on receive, but it also acts
as a spatial filter to provide angle
resolution and other capabilities.

The Receiver amplifies the weak received
signal to a level where its presence can be
detected. Because Noise is the ultimate
limitation on the ability of a radar to make
a reliable detection decision and extract
information about the target care is
taken to insure that the receiver produces
very little noise of its own. At the
microwave frequencies, where most
radars are found,
[contd]

The Noise that affects radar performance
is usually from the first stage of the
receiver, shown in Fig (slide 61) as a low
noise amplifier. For many radar
applications where the limitation to
detection is the unwanted radar echoes
from the environment (called clutter), the
receiver needs to have a large enough
dynamic range so as to avoid having the
clutter echoes
[contd]

adversely affect detection of wanted
moving targets by causing the receiver to
saturate. The dynamic range of a
receiver, usually expressed in decibels, is
defined as the ratio of the maximum to
the minimum signal input power levels
over which the receiver can operate with
some specified performance. The
maximum signal level might be set by the
non linear effects of the
[contd]

receiver response that can be tolerated
(eg the signal power at which the
receiver begins to saturate), and the
minimum signal might be the minimum
detectable signal. The signal
processor, which is often in the IF
portion of the receiver, might be
described as being the part of the
receiver that separates the desired signal
from the undesired
[contd]

signals that can degrade the detection
process. Signal processing includes the
matched filter that maximizes the
output to signal to noise ratio. Signal
processing also includes the doppler
processing that maximizes the signal to
clutter ratio of a moving target when
clutter is larger than receiver noise, and
it separates one moving target from other
[contd]

moving targets or from clutter echoes.
The detection decision is made at the
output of the receiver, so a target is
declared to be present when the receiver
output exceeds a predetermined threshold.
If the threshold is set too low, the receiver
noise can cause excessive false alarms. If
the threshold is set too high, detection of
some targets might be missed that would
[contd]

otherwise have been detected. The
criterion for determining the level of the
decision threshold is to set the threshold
so it produces an acceptable
predetermined average rate of false alarms
due to receiver noise in military radars
may be operator controlled.
After the detection decision is made, the
track of a target can be determined, where
a track
[contd]

is the locus of target locations measured
over time. This is an example of data
processing. The processed data target
information might be used to automatically
guide a missile to a target; or the radar
output might be further processed to
provide other information about the nature
of the target. The radar control insures
that the various part of radar operate in a
coordinated and
[contd]

cooperative manner, as eg providing timing
signals to various parts of the radar as
required.
The radar engineer has as resources:
Time that allows good doppler
processing.
Bandwidth for good range resolution.
Space that allows a large antenna.
[contd]

Energy for long range processing
performance and accurate
measurements.
External factors affecting radar
performance include the:
Target characteristics.
[contd]
External noise that might enter via
the antenna.
Unwanted Clutter echoes from land,
sea, birds, or rain.
Interference from other
electromagnetic radiators.
Propagation effects due to the
earths surface and atmosphere.
These factors mentioned to emphasize that they can be highly
important in the design and application of a radar.
RADAR TRANSMITTERS
The radar transmitter must not only be
able to generate the peak and average
powers required to detect the desired
targets at the maximum range, but also
to generate a signal with a proper
waveform and the stability needed for
the particular application. Transmitters
may be oscillators or amplifiers, but the
later usually offer more advantages.
RADAR TRANSMITTERS
There have been many types of radar power
sources used in radar:
The Magnetron power oscillator was
at one time very popular, but it is
seldom used except for civil marine
radar. Because of the magnetrons
relatively low average power (1 or 2
KW) and poor stability, other power
sources are usually more appropriate
for applications requiring long - range
detection of small moving targets in
(contd)
RADAR TRANSMITTERS
the presence of large clutter echoes.
The magnetron power oscillator is an
example of what is called a crossed
field tube.
There is also a related crossed field
amplifier (CFA) that has been in some
radars in the past, but it also suffers
limitations for important radar
applications, especially for those
requiring detection of moving targets
in clutter.
RADAR TRANSMITTERS
The high power Klystron and the
travelling wave tube (TWT) are
examples of what are called linear
beam tubes. At the high powers
often employed by radars, both tubes
have suitably wide bandwidths as
well as good stability as needed for
doppler processing, and both have
been popular.
The Solid state amplifier, such as
the transistor, has also been used in
radar, especially in phased arrays.
RADAR TRANSMITTERS
Although an individual transistor has
relatively low power, each of the
many radiating elements of an array
antenna can utilize multiple
transistors to achieve the high power
needed for many applications.
When solid state transistor
amplifiers are used, the radar
designer has to be able to:
accommodate the high duty cycle at
which these devices have to operate.
RADAR TRANSMITTERS
the long pulses they must use
that require pulse compression.
the multiple pulses of different
widths to allow detection at
short as well as long range.
Thus the use of solid state
transmitters can have an effect
on other parts of the radar
system.
RADAR TRANSMITTERS
At millimeter wavelengths very high

power can be obtained with the
gyrotron, either as an oscillator or as
an amplifier.
The grid control vacuum tube was

used to good advantage for a long time
in UHF and low frequency radars
although less interest in the low
frequencies for radar however some
say chinese VHF radars (designed some
decades ago due to lack of technology
know how) can pick stealth aircraft.
RADAR TRANSMITTERS
Although not every expert
might agree, some radar
system engineers if given
a choice would consider
the Klystron amplifier as
the prime candidate for a
high power modern radar if
the application were
suitable for its use.
RADAR BLOCK
DIAGRAM
RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM
RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

to an intermediate frequency (IF) where it
is amplified by the IF amplifier. The signal
bandwidth of a superheterodyne receiver
is determined by the bandwidth of its IF
stage. The IF frequency might be 30 or 60
MHz when the pulse width is of the order
of 1 s (with a 1- s pulse width, the IF
bandwidth would be about 1 MHz). The IF
amplifier is designed as a Matched Filter
that is one which maximizes
(contd)
RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

the peak signal to mean noise ratio.
Thus the matched filter maximizes the
detectability of weak echo signals and
attenuates unwanted signals. With the
approximately rectangular pulse shapes
commonly used in many radars,
conventional radar receiver filters are close
to that of a matched filter when the receiver
bandwidth B is the inverse of the pulse
width , or B 1.
RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

Some times the low noise input stage is omitted
and the mixer becomes the first stage of the
receiver. A receiver with a mixer as the input
stage will be less sensitive because of the
mixers higher noise figure; but it will have
greater dynamic range, less susceptibility to
overload, and less vulnerability to electronic
interference than a receiver with a low noise
first stage. These attributes of a mixer stage
might be of interest for military radars subject to
the noisy environment of hostile electronic
countermeasures (ECM).
RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

The IF amplifier is followed by a crystal
diode, which is traditionally called the
second detector or demodulator. Its
purpose is to assist in extracting the signal
modulation from the carrier. The
combination of IF amplifier, second detector
and video amplifier act as an envelope
detector to pass the pulse modulation
(envelope) and reject the carrier frequency.
(contd)
RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

In radars that detect the doppler shift of the
echo signal, the envelope detector is replaced
by a phase detector, which is different from
the envelope detector shown in the block
diagram (slide 86). The combination of IF
amplifier and video amplifier is designed to
provide sufficient amplification, or gain, to
raise the level of the input signal to a
magnitude where it can be seen on a display,
such as a cathode ray tube (CRT), or be the
input signal to a digital computer for further
processing.
RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

At the output of the receiver a decision
is made whether or not a target is
present. The decision is based on the
magnitude of the receiver output. If
the output is large enough to exceed a
pre determined threshold, the
decision is that a target is present. If
it does not cross the threshold, only
noise is assumed to be present.
(contd)
RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

The threshold level is set so that the
rate at which false alarms occur due to
noise crossing the threshold (in the
absence of signal) is below some
specified, tolerable value. This is fine
if the noise remains constant, as when
receivers own noise dominates. If, on
the other hand, the noise is external to
the radar (as from unintentional
(contd)
RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

. interference or from deliberate
noise jamming) or if clutter echoes

(from the natural environment) are
larger than the receiver noise, the
threshold has to be varied adaptively
in order to maintain the false alarm
rate at a constant value. This is
accomplished by a constant false
alarm rate (CFAR) receiver.
RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM
RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM
RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM
RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM
RADAR FREQUENCIES
RADAR LETTER DESIGNATIONS
RADAR FUNCTIONS
Normal radar functions:
1. range (from pulse delay)

2. velocity (from Doppler frequency shift)
3. angular direction (from antenna pointing)
Signature analysis and inverse

scattering:
4. target size (from magnitude of return)
5. target shape and components (return as a
function of
direction)
6. moving parts (modulation of the return)
7. material composition
APPLICATION OF RADARS
INFORMATION AVAILABLE FROM RADARS
INFO AVAILABLE : RADAR

Angular Direction
One method to determine direction to
target is determine where magnitude

of echo signal is maximum.
Requires antenna with a narrow
beamwidth (a high gain antenna).
Angle to target in one angular
dimension can be determined by using
two antennas, displaced in angle, and
comparing the echo amplitude
received in each beam.
(contd)

Angular Direction
Four beams needed to obtain angle

measurement in both azimuth and
elevation.
Monopulse tracking radar uses this
principle.
Accuracy of angle measurement
depends on electrical size of the
antenna; the size of antenna given
in wavelengths.

Size and Shape
If radar has sufficient resolution
capability in range or angle, can

provide measurement of target extent.
Range is usually the co-ordinate

where resolution is obtained.
Resolution in cross range (given by
range multiplied by antenna
beamwidth) can be obtained with very
narrow beamwidth antennas.
(contd)

Size and Shape
Angular width of an antenna beam

is limited, so cross range
resolution obtained by this method
not as good as range resolution.
Very good resolution in the cross
range dimension obtained by

employing doppler frequency domain,
based on SAR or ISAR.
(contd)

Size and Shape
Need of relative motion between the
target and the radar to obtain cross

range resolution by SAR or ISAR.
With sufficient resolution in both

range and cross range, not only can
size be obtained in two orthogonal coordinates, but target shape can
sometimes be discerned.

Doppler
Another application of doppler

shift observation of weather
Nexrad radars of USA.
SAR and ISAR are also based on
doppler ferquency shift.
Airborne doppler navigation radar

also based on doppler shift.

Doppler
Use of doppler in radar places

greater demands on stability of
radar transmitter.
Increases complexity of signal
processing.
Requirements accepted to achieve

significant benefits offered by
doppler.
Doppler shift key capability of radar can measure speed traffic police,
other velocity measuring applications.
EFFECT OF OPERATING FREQ

ON RADAR
EFFECT OF OPERATING FREQ : RADAR

HF 3 to 30 MHz
Major use of HF band is to detect
targets at long ranges (out to 2000
nmi) by taking advantage of refraction
of HF energy by ionosphere.
Radio amateurs refer it as short wave
propagation communicate over long
distances.
Targets for such HF radars might be
aircraft, ships and ballistic missiles.
Also echo from sea surface provide
information about direction and speed
of winds that drive the sea.

VHF 30 to 300 MHz
Radar development in 1930s began in
this band as these frequencies
represented frontier of radio technology.
Good frequency for long range air
surveillance or detection of ballistic
missiles.
At VHF reflection coefficient on scattering
from earths surface can be very large (over
water) constructive interference between
direct signal and surface reflected signal can
increase significantly range of VHF radar
can double radars range.
Destructive interference decreases range due
to deep nulls in antenna pattern in elevation
plane.

VHF 30 to 300 MHz
Destructive interference can result in poor
low altitude coverage.
Detection of moving targets in clutter better at
lower frequencies when radar takes advantage of
doppler frequency shift because doppler
ambiguities (that cause blind speeds) are fewer at
low frequencies.
VHF radars not bothered by echoes from rain
but can be affected by multiple time around
echoes from meteor ionization and aurora.
RCS of aircraft at VHF is generally larger than
RCS at higher frequencies radar equation.
VHF radars cost less compared to radars with
the same range performance that operate at
higher frequencies.

VHF 30 to 300 MHz
Many attractive advantages but

serious limitations too.
Deep nulls & poor low altitude cover.
Available spectral widths assigned are
small so range resolution poor.
Antenna beamwidths are usually
wider than at microwave frequencies
so poor resolution and accuracy in
angle.
VHF band crowded- civilian TV, FM, ..

VHF 30 to 300 MHz
External noise levels entering radar
via antenna higher at VHF vis--vis
microwave frequencies.
Chief limitation obtaining spectrum
space at these crowded frequencies.
VHF surveillance radar widely used by
Soviet Union large country, lower cost
made attractive for air surveillance of
large expanse of country produced
large numbers, large size, long range.
VHF airborne intercept radars used by
Germans WW-II. SN-2 airborne, 60-100
Radars at VHF not affected by Chaff.

UHF 30 to 1000 MHz
Many characteristics of radar
operating in VHF region apply to UHF.
UHF is good frequency for Airborne
Moving Target Indication (AMTI) radar
in Airborne Early Warning Radar(AEW).
Good frequency for operation of long
range radars - detection and tracking
of satellites and ballistic missiles.
At upper portion band long range
shipboard air surveillance radars and
radars (called wind profilers ) measure
speed and direction of wind.

UHF 30 to 1000 MHz
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) example of
Ultrawideband (UWB) radar. Wide signal bandwidth
covers both VHF and UHF bands 50 to 500 MHz.
Wide signal BW needed to obtain good
range resolution.
Lower frequencies needed to allow the
propagation of radar energy into ground.
Even than loss in propagating through
through typical soil high range of
simple mobile GPR only few meters.
Ranges suitable for locating buried lines
and pipe lines as well as buried objects.
Radar to see targets located on surface but
within foliage require same frequencies as GPR.

L Band 1 to 2.0 GHz
Preferred frequency band for

operation of long-range (to 200 nmi)
air surveillance radars.
Air Route Surveillance Radar (ARSR)
for long range air-traffic control is eg.
As frequency increases effect of rain
on performance becomes significant
radar designer has to worry about
reducing effect of rain at L band.
Frequency band attractive for long
range detection satellites and ICBMs.

S Band 2.0 to 4.0 GHz
Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) that
monitors air traffic within the region
of an airport at S Band. Range
typically 50 to 60 nmi. A 3D radar that
determines range, azimuth angle, and
elevation angle achieved at S band.
Earlier long range surveillance better
at low frequencies and accurate
measurement target location better at
high frequencies if single radar
operating at single frequency band used
then S band good compromise.

Sometimes acceptable to use C band

as choice for radar that performs both
functions.
AWACS airborne air surveillance
radar operates at S band usually
most radar applications are best
operated in a particular frequency
band at which the radars performance
is optimum.

However example of AWACS airborne air
surveillance at S band vs US Navy E2
AEW radar at UHF inspite of such
difference in frequency both radars have
comparable performance exception to
observation about an optimum frequency
band for each application.
Nexrad weather radar operates at S
band. Good frequency for observation of
weather because lower frequency would
produce much weaker radar echo signal
from rain radar echo from rain varies as
fourth power of frequency.

A higher frequency would produce
attenuation of the signal as it propagates
through the rain and would not allow an
accurate measurement of rainfall rate.
There are weather radars at higher
frequencies but usually of shorter range
than Nexrad and could be used for more
specific weather radar application than
accurate meteorological measurements
provided by Nexrad.

C Band 4.0 to 8.0 GHz
Band lies between S and X bands and

has properties in between the two.
Often either S or X band might be
preferred to the use of C band
although many applications in past for
C band. This band also used by
satellite communication maybe radar
application not first choice.

X Band 8.0 to 12.0 GHz
Relatively popular radar band for military
applications. Widely used in military airborne
radars for performing the roles of interceptor,
fighter and attack of ground targets.
Also popular for imaging radars based on
SAR and ISAR.
X band suitable frequency for civil marine
radars, airborne weather avoidance radar,
airborne doppler navigation radars and police
speed meter.
Missile guidance systems are also at X band.

X Band 8.0 to 12.0 GHz
Radars at X band are generally of
convenient size and of interest where
mobility and light weight are important
and very long range is not a major
requirement.
Relatively wide range of frequencies
available at X band and ability to obtain
narrow beamwidths with relatively small
antennas in this band important
considerations for high resolution
applications.
High frequency of X band serious factor
in reducing performance with rain.
K , K, K
U
Bands 12.0 to 40 GHz
For higher radar frequency physical size

of antennas decrease generally more
difficult to generate large transmit pwr.
Range performance of radars at
frequencies above X band is generally
less than that of X band.
Military airborne radars are found at
K U band as well as X band.
Frequency bands attractive when radar
of smaller size not requiring long range.
K , K, K
U
Bands 12.0 to 40 GHz
Airport Surface Detection Equipment

(ASDE) found on top of control tower at
Kband
U
major airports at
primarily
because of better resolution than X band.
Original K band has water absorption
line at 22.2 GHz causes attenuation can
be serious problem in some applications.
Discovered after development of K
band radars during WW-II. So
andU
bands were later introduced.
Radar echo from rain can limit capability
of radars at these frequencies.

Millimeter Wave Radar
Most interest in millimeter wave radar has
been in vicinity of 94 GHz there is a
minimum called window in atmospheric
attenuation.
Window is a region of low attenuation

relative to adjacent frequencies window at
94 GHz is about as wide as the entire
microwave spectrum.
For radar millimeter wave region starts at
40 GHz or higher technology of millimeter
wave radars and propagation effects of
environment not only different from
microwave radars but usually much more
restricting .
RADIO WINDOW

Unlike experience at microwaves
millimeter radar signal can be highly
attenuated even when propagating in
clear atmosphere attenuation varies
over millimeter wave region.
Attenuation at 94 GHz window is higher

than attenuation of atmospheric water
vapour absorption line at 22.2 GHz.
One way attenuation in oxygen
absorption line at 60 GHz is about 12 dB
per Km which precludes its application.

Attenuation in rain can also be a

limitation in the millimeter wave
region.
Interest in millimeter wave radar
primarily because of challenges as
frontier to be explored and put to
productive use.
Good features are great place for
employing wide BW signals plenty of
spectrum space available.

Radars can have high range resolution and
narrow beamwidths with small antennas.
Hostile countermeasures to military radars

are difficult to employ.
Easier to have a military radar with low
probability of intercept at these frequencies
than at lower frequencies.
Millimeter wave transmitters not capable of
average power more than few hundred watts
(even less) advances in gyrotrons can
produce average power many times more than
conventional millimeter wave power sources
availability of high power not a limitation now.

Laser Radar
Lasers can produce usable power at optical
frequencies and in the infrared region of the
spectrum.
Can utilize wide BW (very short pulses) and can
have very narrow beamwidths.
Antenna apertures much smaller than
microwaves.
Attenuation in atmosphere and rain very high
performance in bad weather quite limited.
Receiver noise determined by quantum effects
rather than thermal noise.
Several reasons laser radar limited
application.
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
RADAR EQUATION
INTEGRATION OF RADAR PULSES
RADAR CROSS SECTION OF TARGETS
RADAR CROSS SECTION

FLUCTUATIONS
RADAR CROSS SECTION FLUCTUATIONS
TRANSMITTER POWER
TRANSMITTER POWER
TRANSMITTER POWER
ANTENNA PARAMETERS
ANTENNA PARAMETERS
ANTENNA PARAMETERS
ANTENNA PARAMETERS
ANTENNA PARAMETERS
ANTENNA PARAMETERS
ANTENNA PARAMETERS - BEAMS
SYSTEM LOSSES
SYSTEM LOSSES
SYSTEM LOSSES
ANTENNA LOSSES 2 dB
SIGNAL PROCESSING LOSSES 2 dB
DOPPLER PROCESSING RADARS
LOSSES 4.3 dB
COLLAPSING LOSSES 1.8 dB
OPERATOR LOSSES
EQUIPMENT DEGRADATION 1-3 dB
PROPAGATION EFFECTS
SYSTEM LOSSES
RADAR EQUATION REVISED
DOPPLER AND MTI RADAR
DELAY LINE CANCELERS

Simple MTI delay line canceller (DLC) seen
earlier is a time domain filter that rejects
stationary clutter at zero frequency. It has a
frequency response function H (f ) that can be
derived from time domain representation of
signals.
Can be written as:
d p
H (f ) = 2 Sin (
)
fT
Magnitude
H (f )
sketched as:

Blind Speeds
The response of the single delay line
canceller will be zero whenever the
magnitude of
Sin
T ) = 0
p
Which occurs when bracket term is = 0,

, 2, 3 ..

Blind Speeds
In addition to zero response at zero
frequency there will also be zero
response of delay line canceller
whenever the doppler frequency is a
multiple of the pulse repetition frequency.
The radial velocities that produce blind speeds
can be evolved from the equations.
Only the first blind speed is considered since
the others are its integer multiples.
A plot of the first blind speed as a function of
pulse repetition frequency and radar frequency
bands is as shown.
BLIND SPEEDS
BLIND SPEEDS
Blind speeds can be a serious
limitation in MTI radars since they
cause desired moving targets to be
cancelled with undesired clutter at
zero frequency.
Four methods for reducing detrimental
effects of blind speeds.
BLIND SPEEDS
Operate the radar at long wavelengths
(low frequencies).
Operate with a high pulse repetition
frequency.
Operate with more than one pulse
repetition frequency.
Operate with more than one RF
frequency ( wavelength).
BLIND SPEEDS
Combinations of two or more of the
above are also possible to further
alleviate the effect of blind speeds.
Each of these four methods has
particular advantages as well as
limitations, so there is not always a
clear choice as to which to use in any
particular application.
BLIND SPEEDS
Low RF frequency chosen to avoid
blind speed first blind speed 640 Kt
(approx Mach 1) PRF 330 Hz
(unambiguous range 245 nmi) than
radar = 2 m corresponds to f = 150
MHz (VHF region).
Many radars built still has
advantages not desirable for long
range air - surveillance many
reasons.
BLIND SPEEDS
Resolution in range and angle poor
due to narrow BWs and large
beamwidths.
Portion of EM spectrum crowded FM,
TV.
Low altitude coverage generally poor
Thus attempting to use low frequencies
to avoid blind speed problem not
usually a desirable option for radar.
BLIND SPEEDS
Operate at high RF frequency and
increase PRF to avoid blind speeds
have to tolerate many range
ambiguities if first blind speed 640
Kt and = 0.1 m (S band frequency of
3000 MHz) PRF = 6600 Hz.
Results in max unambiguous range of
12.3 nmi small for many radar
applications maybe for pulse doppler.
BLIND SPEEDS
When two or more PRFs used in radar blind
speeds at one PRF different from blind speeds
at other PRFs.
Targets that are highly attenuated with one
PRF might be readily seen with another PRF.
Technique used with air surveillance
especially for civil air traffic control.
Disadvantage of multiple PRF waveform is
multiple time around clutter echoes (from
regions beyond the maximum unambiguous
range) are not cancelled.
BLIND SPEEDS
Radar that can operate at two or more RF frequencies
can also unmask blind speeds.
Required frequency change often larger than might be
possible within the usual frequency bands allocated for
radar use.
A limitation of multiple frequencies is need for greater
system bandwidth.
Might be desirable to tolerate blind speeds rather than
accept limitations of methods described.
As in many aspects of Engineering no one single
solution best for all cases.
Engineer has to decide which above limitations can be
accepted in any particular application.
BLIND SPEEDS
Blind speeds occur because of the
sampled nature of the pulse radar
waveform.
Thus it is sampling that is cause of
ambiguities, or aliasing, in the
measurement of the doppler frequency
just as sampling in a pulse radar (at
the PRF) can give rise to ambiguities
in the range measurement.
CLUTTER ATTENUATION
Other limitation of single delay line

canceller is insufficient attenuation of
clutter that results from finite width of
clutter spectrum.
Single delay line canceller whose
frequency response shown in slide 254
does what supposed to do cancel
stationary clutter with zero doppler
shift.
Real world however clutter spectrum
has finite width due to:
CLUTTER ATTENUATION
Internal motion of the clutter.

Instabilities of the stalo and coho
oscillators.
Other imperfections of the radar and
its signal processor.
Finite signal duration.
Factors that widen clutter spectrum
are complex clutter power spectral
density represented by gaussian
function.
CLUTTER ATTENUATION
Consequences of a finite width

clutter spectrum can be seen from
figure (slide 270).
Frequency response of single delay
line canceller shown by the solid
curve encompasses a portion of the
clutter spectrum therefore clutter
will appear in the output greater the
standard deviation, greater the
amount of clutter that will be passed
by the filter to interfer with moving
target indication.
CLUTTER ATTENUATION
CLUTTER ATTENUATION
If a second delay line canceller is
placed in cascade, the frequency
response of two filters is the square of
the of the single delay line canceller
H (f) = 4 Sin2 (
T )
p
This is indicated by dashed curve in Fig
CLUTTER ATTENUATION
Less of the clutter spectrum is

included within the frequency
response of the double delay line
canceller.
Thus it attenuates more of the clutter.
Clutter Attenuation (CA) for the double
delay line canceller is:
CA =
f
4
4
p
48 c4
f
4 4
768 v
p
CLUTTER ATTENUATION
Additional delay line cancellers can
be cascaded to obtain a frequency
response H (f) which is the nth
power of the single delay line
canceller given by equation of slide
253, where n is the number of delay
line cancellers.
MTI IMPROVEMENT FACTOR

CA is a useful measure of the
performance of an MTI radar in
cancelling clutter but has inherent
weaknesses.
CA can be made infinite by turning off
the radar receiver this cannot be
done since it also eliminates the
desired moving target echo signals.
The IEEE defined a measure of
performance known as MTI
Improvement Factor .

MTI improvement factor includes the
signal gain as well as the clutter
attenuation.
Defined as The signal to clutter
ratio at the output of the clutter filter
divided by the signal to clutter ratio
at the input of the clutter filter,
averaged uniformly over all target
radial velocities of interest.

Expressed as:
Improvement Factor = If =
= CA X average gain

Vertical line on right of above
equation indicates that average is
taken with respect to doppler
frequency fd .
Improvement factor can be expressed
as the clutter attenuation
CA =
(Cin / Cout) times the

average filter gain

The average gain is determined from
the filter response H (f) and is usually
small compared to clutter attenuation.
Average gain for a single delay line
canceller is 2 and for a double delay
line canceller is 6.

The improvement factors for single
and double delay line cancellers are:

The general expression for the
improvement factors for a canceller
with n - delay line cancellers in
cascade is:
PULSE DOPPLER APPLICATIONS

& REQUIREMENTS
COMPARISON OF MTI & PULSE

DOPPLER RADARS FOR AIR-toAIR

Radar Basics

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INTRODUCTION

CONTRACTION OF THE WORDS RADIO

RADIO DETECTION AND

What information RADAR can give?

HOW RADAR WORKS

Most conventional aircraft have a rounded shape. This shape creates a

Fig: X band SAR image of B-52 aircraft sitting

Fig: ISAR image of a ship with X band radar

Bistatic : the transmit and receive antennas are at

are separated a distance half this value or 2.

BASIC RADAR EQUATION

Figure 4.2 (p. 101)

Figure 4.3 (p. 102)

BASIC RADAR EQUATION

BASIC RADAR EQUATION

(a) Single transmission path with parameters used in Friis

A stealth aircraft is made up of completely flat

B-2 Spirit stealth

However, some military aircraft are

RADAR CROSS SECTION

RADAR CROSS SECTION

BASIC RADAR EQUATION

BASIC RADAR EQUATION

BASIC RADAR EQUATION

BASIC RADAR EQUATION

BASIC RADAR EQUATION

BASIC RADAR EQUATION

BASIC RADAR EQUATION

Figure (Slide 61) is a very elementary

BASIC PARTS OF A RADAR

BASIC PARTS OF A RADAR

BASIC PARTS OF A RADAR

BASIC PARTS OF A RADAR

BASIC PARTS OF A RADAR

BASIC PARTS OF A RADAR

BASIC PARTS OF A RADAR

BASIC PARTS OF A RADAR

BASIC PARTS OF A RADAR

BASIC PARTS OF A RADAR

BASIC PARTS OF A RADAR

BASIC PARTS OF A RADAR

BASIC PARTS OF A RADAR

BASIC PARTS OF A RADAR

External noise that might enter via

At millimeter wavelengths very high

The grid control vacuum tube was

RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

noise jamming) or if clutter echoes

RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

RADAR LETTER DESIGNATIONS

Normal radar functions:

1. range (from pulse delay)

Signature analysis and inverse