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Particle-wave duality
Quantum mechanics
De Broglie
all particles can behave like waves
Thus electrons in a semiconductor
lattice have an energy associated to
their electron wave.
Huygens
1650
waves
particles
1800
T. Young
Einstein
1900
E h f
Einstein
1924
p 2 c 2 m02 c 4
Schrdinger equation
Wave equation for particles
Classical description (1D):
Re-written by Schrdinger
p2
KE PE
V E
2m
2 d 2 ( x)
V ( x) ( x ) E ( x )
(1D):
2
2m dx
( x)
-V(x)
a
e+
Simplifying problem
Step 1 electron in a box (quantum well QW):
PE
( x a / 2, a / 2) 0
-a/2
( x)
2 d 2 ( x)
E ( x )
2m dx 2
a/2
n
k
a
2
sin( kx)
a
( x)
2
cos(kx)
a
n even
n
k
a
n odd
2k 2
E (k )
2m
2k 2
E (k )
2m
Simplifying problem
Step 1 relevance
k
n
a
n 1,2,
2k 2
h2
En
n2
2
2m 2ma
-a/2
E3
E2
E1
Energy
a/2
Simplifying problem
Step 2 electrons in different boxes
Energy
V(x)
Distribution of e-
14
e-
ch
wi
th
E2
E1
ea
Energy
T=0K
Energy
Eg
Completely filled with e- at T=0K
Energy
Conduction band
EC
EG Forbidden band bandgap
EV
Valence band
T=0K
Energy
CONDUCTION BAND
Eg
free electrons
free holes
VALENCE BAND
Energy
Eg
Energy
Eg
free electrons
More free holes
Ec
partiallyfilled
empty
Ev
filled
filled
or
overlap
metal
empty
Ec
Small
bandgapEc
Eg
Ev
Conduction
band partially
filled
Eg
Ev
Ev
Ec
No bandgap
filled
Ec
partiallyfilled
Ec
Ev
Ev
filled
metal
Ec
empty
Eg
Eg
filled
or
overlap
empty
Ev
Ev
Ec
filled
insulator
Very large bandgap
Conduction band empty
Ec
partiallyfilled
Ec
Ev
Ev
filled
metal
Ec
empty
Eg
Eg
filled
or
overlap
empty
Ev
Ev
Ec
filled
semiconductor insulator
Bandgap ~ kT/q
Some free electrons and holes
at room temperature
Result of simplification
A silicon lattice is 3D V(x,y,z) much more complex.
Thus energy band diagram much more complex.
We lost the information on the mass of the carriers (electrons
and holes). More accurate calculations show:
1. The existence of 2 types of carriers
electrons in conduction band
holes in valence band
2. Mass of electrons and holes is different
mcarrier for Si: mn < mp
Carrier statistics
How many carriers are available and how
are they distributed in energy?
Density of states
Occupation probability of states
Density of states
Solution of the 1-D Schrdinger equation: discrete energy levels
k
n
a
n 1,2,
n
2k 2
E (k )
2m
1 2m
g (E)
2 2 2
32
f (E)
T=0K
1 exp E E F
kT
T1
1/2
Fermi level
T2>T1
EF
EF
m
ov etal
er w
lap ith
pi
ng
ba
nd
s
uc
nd
se
m
ic o
in
su
lat
o
to
r
full
f(E) 1 1/2 0
EG
Density of carriers
Carriers can only occupy the available states (energy
levels)
Thus no carriers in the bandgap 8 2 2 3
gc (E)
mn E Ec
3
Density of states:
h
gv (E)
8 2 2 3
m p Ev E
3
h
Density of carriers
n g c ( E ) f ( E )dE
Ec
Ev
g ( E )1 f ( E ) dE
v
For Ec EF kT & EF Ev kT
Density of free electrons and holes
Ec E F
n N C exp
kT
E F Ev
p NV exp
kT
N C 2
*
n
2
2m kT
N V 2
2
*
p
Density of carriers
Ec E F
n N C exp
kT
Ec E F
Ec
EF
Ev
E F Ev
p NV exp
kT
Ec
p
E F Ev
EF
Ev
Density of carriers
Density of free electrons and holes
E F Ei
n n i exp
kT
Ei E F
p n i exp
kT
kT
E F Ev
p NV exp
kT
n>p
Material dependent
n<p
EF
Intrinsic
semiconductor
Ec
T>0K
electrons
EF
Ev
holes
a) intrinsic
1/2
g(E)
E
carrier
concentration
1 F(E)
f(E)
E
electrons
Ec
EF
Ev
holes
b) n-type
Extrinsic
semiconductor
1/2
g(E)
E
carrier
concentration
1 F(E)
f(E)
Ec
EF
Ev
electrons
holes
c) p-type
g(E)
1/2
1 F(E)
f(E)
carrier
concentration
E ( x)
V ( x)
e
dV ( x)
E ( x)
dx
Ec
EF
Ei
Ev
If
Ec
EG
Ei
Ev
x
Thus:
E(x)
Ec(x)
Ei(x)
EG
Ev(x)
EG
Ec
e- opposite direction to
electric field.
Ev
h+ in direction of
electric field.
Ec
dV ( x)
dx
1 dE ( x)
E ( x)
e dx
E ( x)
EG
Ev
1 dEc ( x)
e dx
I = 0A
Current densities:
Jn = ennE + eDndn/dx =0
Jp = eppE - eDpdp/dx =0
n(x)
e- diffusion
x
Then
e- drift
E(x)
Dn dn/dx = -nn E
Dp dp/dx = pp E
E = -(Dn/nn) dn/dx
E = (Dp/pp) dp/dx
EF
Ev
Eg
D kT
VT
Ec
dn( x)
dx
dp ( x)
J p ( x) e p p( x)E ( x) eD p
dx
d 2pn ( x)
0
2
dx
d 2n p ( x)
0
2
dx
dE ( x)
( x) e n( x) p( x) N D ( x) N A ( x)
dx
dV ( x)
E ( x)
dx
E ( x)
V ( x)
q
J n ( x) e n n( x)E ( x) eDn
nn ( x) N A ( x)
ni2
n p ( x)
n p ( x)
N A ( x)
p p ( x) N A ( x)
ni2
pn ( x )
pn ( x)
N D ( x)
Conclusions
Two types of carriers in a semiconductor
Electrons negative charge and electron mass mn
Holes positive charge and hole mass mp
+
Free electrons reside in the conduction band, have a negative
charge and an effective mass mn
Free holes reside in the valence band, have a positive charge and a
different effective mass mp
The simplified energy band gives the potential energy of the
carriers
No carriers can reside in the bandgap, EG
The position of the Fermi level, EF defines the type and density of
free carriers.
An electric field (internal or external) causes a tilt in the band
diagram.