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CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
Show relationship of stress
and strain using experimental
methods to determine stressstrain diagram of a specific
material.
Discuss the behavior
described in the diagram for
commonly used engineering
materials.
Discuss the mechanical properties and other test
related to the development of mechanics of
materials.
2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1. Tension and Compression Test
2. Stress-Strain Diagram
3. Stress-Strain Behavior of Ductile and Brittle
Materials
4. Hookes Law
5. Strain Energy
6. Poissions Ratio
7. Shear Stress-Strain Diagram
8. *Failure of Materials Due to Creep and Fatigue
=
L0
Assumption: Strain is constant throughout region
between gauge points.
By plotting (ordinate) against (abscissa), we
get a conventional stress-strain diagram.
2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
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Figure 3-4
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Ductile materials
Defined as any material that can be subjected to
large strains before it ruptures, e.g., gold, silver,
platinum, iron, nickel, copper, aluminum, zinc, tin
and lead.
Such materials are used because it is capable of
absorbing shock or energy, and if before becoming
overloaded, will exhibit large deformation before
failing
Ductility of material is to report its percent
elongation or percent reduction in area at time of
fracture.
2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
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Ductile materials
Percent elongation is the specimens fracture
strain expressed as a percent
Lf L 0
Percent elongation =
L0
(100%)
19
Ductile materials
Most metals do not exhibit constant yielding
behavior beyond the elastic range, e.g. aluminum.
It does not have well-defined yield point, thus it is
standard practice to define its yield strength using
a graphical procedure called the offset method.
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Ductile materials
Offset method to determine yield strength
1. Normally, a 0.2 % strain is
chosen.
2. From this point on the
axis, a line parallel to initial
straight-line portion of
stress-strain diagram is
drawn.
3. The point where this line
intersects the curve
defines the yield strength.
2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
21
Brittle Materials
Material that exhibit little or no yielding before
failure are referred to as brittle materials, e.g.,
gray cast iron
Brittle materials do not have a well-defined
tensile fracture stress, since appearance of
initial cracks in a specimen is quite random.
22
Brittle Materials
Instead, the average fracture stress from a set of
observed tests is generally reported.
23
Ut tensio
sic
vis
The force
is proportional to
the extension of the spring.
He was also:
an architect
father of
microscopy
an astronomer
a physicist
Stress, Strain, and Equilibrium in Uniaxial Bars
Load
(W)
Bar
A
Limit of
Proportionality
Bar
B
Elastic Behaviour
Hookes Findings:
i.e.
LOAD
EXTENSION
W K u
Axial Stiffness
K depends on:
Extension
(u)
W
K
u
(in Units of N/m)
i) Material Properties
ii) Geometry of Bar (i.e. L and A)
STRESS
STRAIN
E
or
Pa
Mild
Steel
Youngs Mod, E
GPa
Unit:
210
Elastic Behaviour
18.5
12.5
2.8
Rubber
0.004
Example:
Consider the two bars under uniaxial tension below. Calculate (a)
the stiffness of each bar, and (b) Youngs Modulus of each material.
75 mm2
P
A
Load, P=10.5 kN
Extension, u=0.2 mm
100 mm
25 mm2
P
B
Load, P=5.25 kN
Extension, u=0.1 mm
100 mm
(a)
P
K
u
A
B
10500
52.5 MN / m
3
0.2x10
5250
K
52.5 MN / m
3
0.1x10
Equal
Stiffness
(b) By definition:
PL
L
Au
u
10500 0.1
E
70 GPa
6
3
75 x10 0.2x10
5250 0.1
E
6
3 210 GPa
25 x10 0.1x10
A
Aluminium
Mild Steel
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35
F = A = (x y)
= (1/2) F
= (1/2) A
= (1/2) (x y)
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( )
2
=
2E
37
pl pl
2
pl2
2E
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EXAMPLE 3.1
Tension test for a steel alloy results in the stress-strain
diagram below.
Calculate the
modulus of
elasticity and the
yield strength
based on a 0.2%.
40
345 MPa
E=
0.0016 mm/mm
= 215 GPa
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EXERCISE 1
The stress-strain diagram for a steel alloy having an original
diameter of 12 mm and a gauge length of 50 mm is given in the
figure. Determine approximately the modulus of elasticity for the
material, the load on the specimen that causes yielding, and the
ultimate load the specimen will support.
45
Final
Shape
Initial
Shape
His only
passion has
been science: he
lived and is
dead for it.
This figure from Hibbeler demonstrates the same concept, in tension and
compression.
Consider normal
strains
longitudinal
+ve
lateral
'
-ve
longitudinal
-ve
lateral
+ve
long =
L
lat =
r
lat
long
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y
u
z
Poisson found that under uniaxial tension:
Strains in Y and Z-directions
w
u
Strain in X-direction
y x
& z x
i.e.
y , z
x
Stress, Strain, and Equilibrium in Uniaxial Bars
v
w
E,
y
u
x
z
L
What are the normal stress and strain?
Load
P
x
Area bd
Extension (in X-direction):
u x L
MECHENG242 Mechanics of Materials
P
& x
E Ebd
P L
u
E bd
Stress, Strain, and Equilibrium in Uniaxial Bars
E,
x
z
P E bd
u
L
Youngs
Modulus
Length
v
w
E,
y
u
x
z
Lateral Contractions:
P
Eb
v y d x d
w z b x b
Ed
Mild
Steel
Poissons
Ratio
v
0.3
0.1-0.2
0.4
Rubber
0.45-0.5
Constant volume
10 kN
10 mm
10 kN
Applied stress:
100 MPa
10 mm
500 m
If we use Mild Steel: L=0.24 mm, w=-0.00143 mm
If we use Aluminum: L=0.71 mm, w=-0.00471 mm
If we use Nylon: L=17.9 mm, w=-0.143 mm
MECHENG242 Mechanics of Materials
EXAMPLE 3.4
Bar is made of A-36 steel and behaves elastically.
Determine change in its length and change in dimensions of its cross
section after load is applied.
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E
G
2 1
If E and can be obtained from a tensile test, G can be calculated
from this relationship.
The table below lists some data for the shear modulus of
elasticity of some common materials.
Mild
Steel
Rigidity Mod, G
GPa
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~0.7
~1.0
Rubber
~0.0014
E long
lat long
EXAMPLE 3.5
Specimen of titanium alloy tested in
torsion & shear stress-strain diagram
shown below.
Determine shear modulus G,
proportional limit, and ultimate shear
stress.
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66
V
360 MPa =
(75 mm)(100 mm)
V = 2700 kN
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Creep
Occurs when material supports a load for very long
period of time, and continues to deform until a sudden
fracture or usefulness is impaired
Is only considered when metals and ceramics are used
for structural members or mechanical parts subjected to
high temperatures
Other materials (such as polymers & composites) are
also affected by creep without influence of temperature
68
Creep
Stress and/or temperature significantly affects the rate
of creep of a material
Creep strength represents the highest initial stress the
material can withstand during given time without
causing specified creep strain
Simple method to determine creep strength
Test several specimens simultaneously
At constant temperature, but
Each specimen subjected to different axial stress
2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
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Creep
Simple method to
determine creep
strength
Measure time taken to
produce allowable
strain or rupture strain
for each specimen
Plot stress vs. strain
Creep strength
inversely proportional
to temperature and
applied stresses
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Fatigue
Defined as a metal subjected to repeated cycles of
stress and strain, breaking down structurally, before
fracturing
Needs to be accounted for in design of connecting rods
(e.g. steam/gas turbine blades, connections/supports
for bridges, railroad wheels/axles and parts subjected
to cyclic loading)
Fatigue occurs at a stress lesser than the materials
yield stress
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Fatigue
Also referred to
as the endurance
or
fatigue limit.
Method to get value
of
fatigue
Subject series of
specimens to
specified stress and cycled
to failure
Plot stress (S) against
number of cycles-tofailure N (S-N diagram)
on logarithmic scale.
2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
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