Chemical in Workplace

SALAM SEJAHTERA
UNTUK KITA SEMUA
GOD BLESS YOU ALL
CHEMICALS IN THE
WORKPLACE
IPCS
International
Programme
on Chemical
Safety
Chemicals have improved the

quality of life.
Agrochemicals in the form of
pesticides and fertilizers have greatly
increased food production.
New drugs are constantly entering
the market for the treatment of heart
disease.
Today, in virtually every

workplace, workers are
exposed to chemicals.
Chemicals such as solvents are
used for cleaning and degreasing,
mixing paints and varnishes, and
diluting chemical fire and explosion
hazards; concentrated compounds
and mixtures.
Gases and vapors are employed

in industrial operations such as
welding and refrigeration, or in a
variety of chemical processes.
Gases are also used as anesthetic
agents in hospitals.
Laboratories in schools,
universities, research institutions,
government agencies and private
enterprises make use of a variety
of chemicals in both large and
small quantities.
In agriculture, workers may be

exposed to chemical-based
products such as fertilizers,
pesticides and herbicides. Many
chemical-based pesticides are used
for controlling insect-borne diseases
such as malaria.
Even in today's modern office, one
may find a variety of different
chemicals.
However, certain chemical
substances can both harm and

kill.
Chemicals alone in concentration,
or when mixed with other

chemical substances, can cause
injury, disease
or death.
The misuse of chemical

substances may also result in fires
and explosions.
It is imperative that everyone who
could potentially come into contact
with chemicals should know and
understand the risks, and the
methods available for reducing
them.
We must have gold and

silver, also other
metals, iron, tin,
copper, lead and
mercury. If we wish to
have these, we must
risk both life and body
in a struggle with many
(Paracelcus, 14931541).
All substances are

poisons; There is
none which is not a
poison; The right
dose differentiate a
poison from a
remedy.
(Paracelcus, 1493-1541)
Toxicology is the science that studies

the poisonous, or toxic properties of
substances.
Everyone is exposed on and off the job
to a variety of chemical substances;
most are not hazardous under ordinar
circumstances, but they all have the
potential to cause injury at some
concentrations.
Environmental toxicology is the

study of the effects of toxic
substances in relation to the
environment in which they occur.
It should not be confused with
ecotoxicology, which is the study of
the toxic effects of chemical and
physical agents on all living
organisms, especially on population
and communities within defined
ecosystems.
A poison is generally
considered to be any
substance that can
cause severe injury
or death as a result
of a physicochemical
interaction with living
tissue.
All substances are potential poisons

since all of them can cause injury
of death following excessive
exposure.
The term poison tends to be limited
to those substances of high toxicity
and lethality, the ability to kill at
relatively small exposure.
A more general term for

potentially toxic substances is
toxicant.
The related term toxin should
be restricted to a poisonous
substance produced by a
organism such as a
microorganism such as a
microbe, animal or plant.
Ecology is the study of the

relationships between living
organisms and between organisms
and their environment, especially
animal and plant communities, their
energy flows and their interactions
with their surroundings.
The ecosystem embraces the
food chain through which energy

flows together with the biological
cycles necessary for the recycling
of essential nutrients.
Thus, an ecosystem has the means
of producing both energy and
materials for life going on
continuously.
Greenhouse Effects
As these gases are transparent to solar
radiation, the short-wave incoming
radiation
is transmitted.
They are opaque to long-wave rayradiation from the earths surface or
from any other objects underneath, thus
heat is trapped and the underlying
surface thereby warmed.
Greenhouse Effects
The mechanism whereby incoming
solar radiation is trapped by a glass
sheet or
the presence of carbon dioxide and
other greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere.
Greenhouse Effects
The best estimates by the UN panel on
climate change (1990) for temperature
changes by 2030 are :
Central North America : increased
temperature between 2 to 4 oC in
winter and 2 to 3 oC in summer.
Greenhouse Effects
South-East Asia : warming between 1
and 2 oC throughout the year.
Australia : up 1-2 oC in summer and 2
o
C up in winter.
Sahel (area south of Sahara) : up
between 1 and 3 oC generally.
Greenhouse Gases
This term links all gases together,
although some components are much

more damaging than others, e.g. a
molecule of methane is ca. (circa =
kira-kira) 30 times more powerful in
greenhouse terms than a molecule
of carbon dioxide and CFCs are
estimated to be up to 10.000 times
more powerful than CO2.
Greenhouse Gases
The best estimate of the relative

contributions to the greenhouse
effect of these gases is that carbon
dioxide is the greatest single
contributor (50 per cent), CFCs 15 per
cent, methane 20 percent, ozone (O3)
10 percent, water vapor and nitrous
oxide (N2O) 5 per cent.
Health Hazards
A great deal of attention in recent
years has been focused on the effects

of exposure to chemicals on the health
of workers.
Many chemicals which were once
regarded as safe have been found to
be associated with diseases ranging
from mild skin rashes to chronic health
impairment and fatal cancers.
Although much has been learned

about chemical toxicity from the
study of diseases in laboratories and
elsewhere, there are far too many
chemicals used in the workplace
today whose harmful effects are still
unknown. It is therefore essential
to treat all chemicals with care.
Chemicals
are a part of everyone's life. At

least 400 million tonnes of chemicals are
produced each year worldwide and at least
1,200 new chemicals are developed each
year in North America alone.
For the majority of chemicals used and
developed, there is no information about
their possible immediate or long-term health
effects, yet workers are still required to work
with potentially toxic substances.
In many countries, chemicals are dumped
into the environment, often with serious

human and environmental consequences.
The laws about chemical disposal in other
countries are strict, to protect both people
and the environment.
Nearly all workers today are exposed
to some sort of chemical hazard since
chemicals are used in every type of
industry.
Therefore it is important to learn as much
as possible about the chemicals you work
Chemical : chemical elements and compounds, in

and mixtures of them, whether natural or
synthetic.
Poisoning : normally the human body is able to
cope with a variety of substances, within certain
limits.
Poisoning occurs when these limits are exceeded
and the body is unable to the deal with a
substance (by digestion, absorption or excretion).
Industrial Chemicals
There are a variety of chemicals that are
commonly used in industry.
Industrial chemicals can be described in a
number of ways, for example by their
effect on the worker (whether the
chemical is corrosive or causes dermatitis,
etc.), or by the physical form of the
chemical (that is, whether it is a dust,
fume, vapor, gas, etc.).
Solids
Solids are the least likely of the
chemical forms to cause chemical
poisoning.
However, certain chemical solids can
cause poisoning if they get onto your
skin or food and you then ingest
them. Personal hygiene is important
to prevent the ingestion of chemical
Solids
The greatest danger with solids is
that some work processes can
change them into a more dangerous
form.
For example, wood that is being cut
can turn into wood dust which can
then be inhaled.
Solids
Welding rods can decompose into
fumes and gases. Polyurethane
foam is safe in its normal solid form
but gives off deadly gases if it
burns.
Chemicals in solid form can give off
toxic vapors which can be inhaled,
and solids can be flammable and
explosive, and corrosive to the skin.
Dusts
Dusts are tiny particles of solids.
You can be exposed to dust in the
workplace from materials that normally
exist in dust form (for example, bags of
cement), or from work processes that
create dust (for example, handling glass
fiber can produce toxic dust).
The main danger from harmful dusts is
that you can breathe (inhale) them into
your lungs.
Dusts
When breathed in, the larger dust
particles are usually trapped by hairs and
mucus and then removed by the body.
Smaller particles, however, are more
dangerous because they can get deep
inside the lungs where they can have
damaging effects, or they can be
absorbed into the bloodstream and travel
to other parts of the body where they can
cause damage.
Chemicals can change their physical

form, e.g. wood into sawdust
Chemicals that are dumped into the

environment can cause serious
human
and environmental problems
Dust in the workplace should be kept

at or below safe levels. If you must
wear a mask, be sure it is the correct
type for the particular hazard.
Mists and
Vapors are Often Invisible
Liquid
Many liquid chemicals give off
vapors which you can inhale and
which may be highly toxic,
depending on the chemical.
Liquid chemicals can be absorbed
by your skin. Some liquid
chemicals may cause immediate
skin damage (they may or may not
be absorbed into the bloodstream
Liquid
Other liquids pass directly through
the skin into the bloodstream, where
they can travel to different parts of
the body and cause damaging
effects.
Effective control measures should be
used with liquid chemicals to
eliminate or reduce the possibility of
inhalation, skin exposure and eye
Vapors
A vapor is the gas phase of a material

which is normally liquid under standard
conditions.
Tiny droplets of liquid which are
suspended in the air are called mists.
Many liquid chemicals evaporate at room
temperature, which actually means that
they form a vapor and stay in the air.
The vapors from some chemicals can
irritate your eyes and skin.
Vapors
Vapors can be flammable or
explosive.
To avoid fire or explosion, it is
important to keep chemicals that
vaporize away from any sparks,
sources of ignition or incompatible
chemicals.
Gasoline and water are two
examples of liquids which
Gases
Some chemical substances are in the form
of a gas when they are at a normal
temperature. However, some chemicals in
liquid or solid form become gases when
they are heated.
You can detect some gases easily by
their color or smell, but there are other
gases that you cannot see or smell at all
you can only detect them with special
equipment.
Gases
Some gases produce irritant
effects immediately.
The health effects of other gases
may be noticeable only after your
health has already been seriously
damaged.
Definitions
Toxicity : the inherent potential of a
chemical substance to cause poisoning.

The toxicity of chemicals varies widely. For
example, a few drops of a given chemical
will cause death while. other chemicals
will produce the same effect only after a
large quantity has been consumed.
Hazard : a potential to cause danger to
life, health property or the environment.
Definitions
Chemical hazard: any chemical
that has been classified as hazardous
or for which relevant information
exists to indicate that it is hazardous.
Risk : the measured probability of an
event to cause danger to life, health,
property or the environment.
LD50 (Lethal Dose 50%)

LD50 is an abbreviation for Lethal
Dose
50%.
It is sometimes also referred to as the
Median Lethal Dose.
Although the LD50 is no longer the
only measure available for assessing
the acute toxicity of single dose of a
substance, for historical reasons it is
probably still the most commonly
The LD50 for a particular substance is

essentially the amount that can be
expected to cause death in half (i.e. 50%)
of a group of some particular animal
species, usually rats or mice, when
entering the animals body by a particular
route.
For example, if the substance is
swallowed
the figure is an oral LD50 whereas if it
is
absorbed through the skin its a dermal
Acute LD50 Values For

A Variety of Chemical Agents
1. Ethanol
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
10.000
Sodium chloride4000
Ferrous sulfate 1500
100
DDT
1
Nicotine
0,001
Dioxin (TCDD)
pig)
Botulinum toxin 0,00001
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
BW
BW
BW
BW
BW
BW
(mouse)
(mouse)
(rat)
(rat)
(rat)
(guinea
mg/kg BW (rat)
Lethal Concentration 50%

The
LC(t)50 is similar and widely used

measure for acute toxicity by
inhalation.
The LC(t)50 is essentially the
concentration of a substance that can
be expected to cause death in half
(i.e. 50%) of a group of some
particular species when entering the
body over the specified period of time.
Lethal Concentration 50%

LC(t)50
figures are usually reported

as milligrams of the substance per
cubic meter (or liter) of the
atmosphere to which the animal is
exposed for the specified time [t].
Generally, no account is taken of
body weight when comparing values
for different species.
Toxicity Classes
Toxicit Descripti
y
ve Term
Rating
1
2
3
4
5
6
Extremely
toxic
Highly
toxic
Moderately
toxic
Slightly
toxic
Practically
nontoxic
LD50
wt/kg
Single
Oral
Dose in
Rats
4-hr
Inhalation
LC50 in Rats
(ppm)
Extrapol
ated
Dose (g)
for 70-kg
Human
1mg
< 10
< 0.07
1-50 mg
50-500 mg
10-100
100-1,000
0.07-3.5
3.5-35
0.5-5 g
1,000-10,000
35-350
5-15 g
10.000100.000
350-1000
15 g
>1000
> 100.000
Lethal Dose 50
The EPA Guidelines For Acute

Toxicity
Toxicity
category
Oral LD50
mg/kg)
Dermal
LD50
(mg/kg)
Inhalation
LC50
(ppm)
Less than/equal
to 50
Less than/equal
to 200
Less than/equal
to 200
DANGER
POISON
II WARNING
50-500
200-2000
200-2000
III CAUTION
500-5000
2000-20.000
2000-20.000
IV caution
> 5000
> 20.000
> 20.000
Threshold Concept
A threshold is a point at which a

physiological effect begins to occur. A
small amount of most chemical is not
harmful. As the dose increases, there is a
point at which the first measurable effect is
noted.
As the dose continually increases, there is a
point at which the effect may be lethal. In
other words, the dose makes the poison. In
large enough quantities, even harmless
substances, like water, can be harmful.
Threshold Limit Values
The ACGIH has established guidelines for

exposure to airborne contaminants.
These
guidelines are widely accepted and
updated annually.
The TLV of an airborne chemical
represents the concentration of that
chemical below which there is thought to
be no significant adverse effect on most
workers.
Not every chemical will have a TLV.

ACGIH TLVs are based solely on
health factors; there is no
consideration given to economic
and technical feasibility.
ACGIH TLVs should not be adopted
as standards without an analysis of
other factors necessary to make
appropriate risk management
decisions.
TLVs refers to airborne

concentrations of
chemical substances and represent
conditions under which it is believed
that
nearly all workers may be repeatedly
exposed, day after day, over a
working
lifetime, without adverse health
effects.
TLVs are developed to protect
TLVs
Because of wide variation of individual
susceptibility, however, a small
percentage of workers may experience
discomfort for some substances at
concentrations at or below the
threshold limits;
A smaller percentage may be affected
more seriously by aggravation of a
pre-existing condition or by
development of an occupational
illness.

These limits are intended for use in the
practice
of industrial hygiene as guidelines
or recommendation in the control of
potential
health hazard, and for no other use, for
examples:
a. In the evaluation or control of community
air pollution nuisance.
TLV (Continued)
c. Adoption or use by countries whose
working conditions and cultures differ from
those in the USA and where substances and
processes differ.
d. These limits are not fine lines between
safe and dangerous concentrations nor
are they a relative index of toxicity. They
should not be used by anyone untrained in
the discipline of industrial hygiene.
e. As a proof or disproof of an existing disease
or physical condition.
Short-Term Exposure Limit

STEL is a short-term TWA exposure to
which workers can be continuously
exposed for up to 15 minutes, four
times in one hour of exposures
ranges without suffering from irritation,
chronic or irreversible tissue damage, or
narcosis of sufficient degree to increase
the likelihood of accident or injury.
Ceiling (C)
This is the concentration that
should not be exceeded during
any part of the work day or the
concentration that should not
be exceeded even
instantaneously.
TLVs For Mixtures

Most threshold limit values are
developed for a single chemical
substance.
However, the work environment is
often composed of multiple chemical
exposure both simultaneously and
sequentially.
TLVs For Mixtures

It is recommended that
multiple exposures that
comprise such work
environment be examined to
assure that workers do not
experience harmful effects.
TLVs For Mixtures
There are several possible mode

of chemical mixture interaction.
Additivity occurs when the
combined biological effect of the
components is equal to the sum
of each of the agents given
alone.
TLVs For Mixtures
Synergy occurs where the combined

effect is greater than the sum of
each agent.
Antagonism occurs when the

combined effect is less.
TLVs For Mixtures
When two or more hazardous substances

have a similar toxicological effect on the
same target organ or system, their
combined effect, rather than that of
either individually, should be given
primary consideration.
In the absence of information to the
contrary, different substances should be
considered as additive where the health
effect and target organ or system is the
same.
TLVs For Mixtures

If the sum of :
C1/T1 + C2/T2 + . Cn/Tn exceeds
unity, the threshold limit of the
mixture should be considered as
being exceeded (where C1 indicates
the observed atmospheric
concentration and T1 is the
corresponding threshold limit).
Points to Remember
Industrial chemicals can be

described by their effect on the
worker or by the physical form of
the chemical.
Chemicals can enter the body by
inhalation, ingestion, or skin
absorption.
Points to Remember
Toxic chemicals can cause a variety

of harmful effects on different parts
of the body, including acute, local,
chronic and systemic effects.
There are a number of factors that
determine the type of toxic effect a
chemical can have on you, including
the form of the chemical, route of
entry, and individual response to the
chemical.
Points to Remember
Workers may show different
physiological
responses to industrial chemicals.
Union strategies for protecting
workers against chemical hazards
should try to create a safe working
environment for all workers, whether
they are male, female, vulnerable,
women of childbearing age, etc.
Points to Remember
Regular medical examinations should
never be used to eliminate vulnerable
workers from jobs.
Exposure to toxic substances in the
workplace can also lead to higher accident
rates. It is important to learn about the
substances you work with, make sure the
proper control measures are in place, and
to know your rights.
Exposure to Toxic
Chemicals and Accidents
Exposure to toxic chemicals can also lead
to higher rates of accidents at work.
For example, chemicals such as solvents
and asphyxiants may slow your reaction
time by affecting your nervous system or
limiting the amount of oxygen that gets to
your lungs.
A slow reaction can be very serious (or
even fatal) if you are in a dangerous
situation that requires an immediate
response.
Exposure to Toxic
Chemicals and Accidents
Continued.
Unfortunately, when accidents occur
in the
workplace, management often
blames the
worker, claiming he or she was
careless.
Exposure to toxic
chemicals and accidents
This tendency to blame the victim is yet

another reason to learn about the
substances you work with, to make sure
the proper control measures are in place,
and to know your rights!
Exposure to toxic chemicals can also lead
to higher rates of accidents at work.
For example, chemicals such as solvents
and asphyxiants may slow your reaction.
Working around chemicals without the

proper protections in place can lead to
serious accidents
Effects of chemicals on the

environment
Many employers do not dispose of
chemical wastes safely
Chemical Waste
Many employers are not aware of

the hazards associated with toxic
chemicals and often do not know
how to dispose of chemical
wastes safely. (Employers also
need to be educated about
chemical hazards.)
Chemical Waste
As a result, these employers often
simply dump waste chemicals into
the environment.
Convenient dumping grounds are the
ocean, rivers, lakes, fields, roadsides,
etc.
Sometimes these dumping grounds
are right in the community where you
and your family live and work.
Chemical Waste
Toxic chemicals which are improperly
disposed of may eventually end up in
your drinking water, in the places
where your children play, in the soil
where your food is grown, etc.
In reality, every country is struggling
today with the problem of chemical
waste and how to dispose of it
permanently yet safely.
Chemical Waste
The best solution to date is to use specially
approved and well-maintained disposal sites
that prevent chemicals from leaking into
groundwater and into residential or farming
areas.
Dumping chemicals into the ocean is never a
solution.
In fact ocean dumping can have very serious
effects - chemicals can get into the food chain,
destroy marine life, wash back to shore, etc.
Your family can be exposed to your

workplace hazards if you bring
chemicals or other workplace
contaminants home with you on
your clothes, hair or skin.
To prevent this spreading the
hazard, if possible wash/shower
and change your clothes when
necessary before you leave work.
Leave your dirty clothes at work

or, if you must wash them at home,
wash them separately ---never with
the family wash!
Although you may think that the
amount of contaminant you can
bring home on your clothes or skin is
very small and cannot hurt your
family, in fact, a small exposure
every day for months can add up to
a big exposure and can lead to
serious illness.
Points to Remember
The physical form of a chemical can

affect how it enters your body and,
to some extent, the damage it
causes. The main physical forms of
toxic chemicals are: solids, dusts,
liquids, vapors and gases.
Points to Remember
Solids are the least likely of the chemical

forms to cause chemical poisoning.
However, certain chemical solids can
cause poisoning if they are ingested.
Personal hygiene is important to
prevent the ingestion of chemical solids.
Some chemicals in solid form can give off
toxic dusts or vapors which can be
inhaled.
Effective control measures should be
used with chemical solids, especially
during work processes that may change
them into more hazardous forms.
Points to Remember
You can be exposed to occupational dust

from materials that normally exist in dust
form or from work processes that create
dust.
The main danger from harmful dusts is
that you can inhale them.
Once inside your body, dusts can produce
a variety of serious health problems.
Under certain conditions dusts can also
explode. Effective control measures
should be used to keep occupational
Points to Remember
Some liquid chemicals give off
vapors which you can inhale and
which may be highly toxic,
depending on the chemical.
Liquid chemicals can be absorbed
by your skin. They can also cause
burns or eye damage due to eye
splashes.
Points to Remember
If absorbed, chemicals can cause
skin damage and/or internal
(systemic) health effects.
Effective control measures should
be used with liquid chemicals to
eliminate or reduce the possibility
of inhalation and skin exposure.
Points to Remember
Vapors are tiny droplets of liquid

suspended in the air. Vapors can be
inhaled and, depending on the
chemical, can be highly toxic.
Some vapors irritate the eyes and skin.
Certain vapors are flammable or
explosive.
Control measures should be used to
prevent workers from being exposed to
vapors from liquids, solids or other
Points to Remember
Some chemicals are in the form of a
gas when they are at a normal
temperature. However, some liquids
and solids become gases when they
are heated.
Some gases have strong odors or
colors while others are odorless and
colorless (and can be highly toxic).
Gases can be inhaled.
Points to Remember
Certain gases can produce
immediate irritant effects, while
others produce noticeable effects
only after serious damage to your
health has already occurred.
Gases can be flammable or
explosive.
Points to Remember
Many employers are not aware of the

hazards associated with toxic chemicals
and often do not know how to dispose of
chemical wastes safely employers also
need to be educated about chemical
hazards.
Employers often dump waste chemicals
into the environment. Chemicals that are
improperly disposed of may eventually
get into your drinking water and your
Points to Remember
Chemical wastes should only be disposed
of in approved and well-maintained
disposal sites.
To prevent bringing workplace chemicals
home to your family, wash/shower and
change your clothes when necessary
before you leave work. Leave your dirty
clothes at work. If you must wash them
at home, wash them separately never
How Can You Identify

Health and Safety Problems ?
Here are some of the ways you can
identify
health and safety problems:
Observe your workplace;
Investigate complaints from workers;
Examine accident and near-miss
records;
Examine sickness figures;
How Can You Identify

Health and Safety Problems?
Use simple surveys to ask your coworkers about their health and safety
concerns;
Use check-lists to help you inspect
your workplace;
Learn the results of inspections
that are done by the employer, the
union or anyone else;
Read reports or other information about
your workplace.
Routes Of Entry
Chemicals can enter the body (routes
of entry) by :
Inhalation through the lungs
Absorption through the skin
Ingestion through the mouth
Certain substances irritate the

mucous membrane of the upper
respiratory tract and respiratory
passages within the lungs.
This irritation may serve as a
warning of the presence of
chemicals.
However, certain gases or vapors do
not have this effect.
Unnoticed by the workers, they
penetrate deeply into the lungs
Respiratory System
Respiratory System
Respiratory System
The hairs in your nose trap large

dust particles.
You can see how effective this
natural filter is by blowing your
nose after working in a dusty or
smoke-filled environment.
Respiratory System
Your body's respiratory system has

very effective mechanisms for
filtering out normal pollutants from
the air you breathe.
Filtering systems in the nose and
mouth (for example, the hairs in
the nose, the mucus in the mouth
and lungs) prevent large foreign
particles (like coarse dust) from
traveling down into your lungs
where they can have damaging
Respiratory System
The air passageways are lined with
tiny hairlike structures (cilia).
These structures are part of the
clearing mechanism of the lungs
which causes foreign particles,
deposited on the surfaces of the
respiratory passages within the
lungs to be carried by mucus
towards the throat.
Respiratory System
It is estimated that 2 liters of

mucus flow to the throat each
day.
During breathing, airborne
chemicals enter the nostrils or
mouth, pass through the air
passageways and finally reach the
gas exchange area where they are
either deposited or pass through
Respiratory System
Certain substances irritate the mucous

membrane of the upper respiratory tract
and respiratory passages within the lungs.
This irritation may serve as a warning
of the presence of chemicals.
However, certain gases or vapors do not
have this effect.
Unnoticed by the workers, they penetrate
deeply into the lungs causing lung injury,
or become transported in the
bloodstream.
Filtering Mechanisms
Generally, large dust particles

(including fibers) can be filtered out
of the respiratory system.
But small dust particles are difficult
to eliminate and can reach the
deepest parts of the lungs where
they can cause serious local
respiratory problems.
When the lungs are exposed to high

concentrations of dust, toxic vapors,
cigarette smoke, etc. (high amounts
of the pollutant in the air), the
filtering mechanisms can become
overloaded and damaged.
Once they are damaged, various
bacteria, viruses, etc. are more likely
to grow in the lungs, causing
infections such as pneumonia.
That is why workers in dusty
occupations (bauxite and coalminers,
sugar factory and asbestos workers,
flour mill workers, furniture makers,
etc.) are known to be more
susceptible (open) to tuberculosis,
bronchitis and other respiratory
diseases than workers in non-dusty
occupations
Inhalation
The entry of dust particles into the body

depends on their size and solubility.
Only small particles (less than seven
thousandths of a millimeter in diameter)
will be able to reach the gas exchange
area.
This respirable dust (which reaches the gas
exchange area) will either be deposited
there or diffused into the bloodstream,
depending on the solubility of the
chemicals.
Insoluble dust particles are mostly
Inhalation
The larger dust particles are filtered by the

hairs of the nostrils or deposited along the
path from the nose to the air passageways.
They will eventually be transported to the
throat where they will be either
swallowed, or spat or coughed out.
Extreme care must be taken because
chemicals in the form of vapor, fumes, dust
or gas can easily enter the body through
breathing.
Inhalation
Insoluble dust particles are mostly
eliminated by the clearing mechanisms of
the lungs.
The larger dust particles are filtered by
the hairs of the nostrils or deposited along
the path from the nose to the air
passageways.
They will eventually be transported to the
throat where they will be either
Inhalation
In industry, inhalation is the most

significant route of entry. The
respiratory system represents an
efficient entry point for chemicals.
With a total surface area of the lungs of
90 square meters in a healthy adult, a
worker performing a moderate task
inhales about 8.5 cubic meters of air in
the course of an eight-hour shift.
Inhalation
The respiratory system consists
essentially of the upper respiratory
tract (nose, mouth, throat), the air
passageways (trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, alveolar ducts) and the
gas exchange area (alveoli) where
oxygen from the air diffuses into the
blood and carbon dioxide from the
blood diffuses into the air.
Mouth Breathing
Mouth breathing is very common in

humans and obviously bypasses the
nose, taking aerosols directly into the
lungs with some loss on the way of
large particles (> 10 um) to the gastrointestinal tract.
Particles which enter the trachea and
larger airways (bronchi and bronchioli)
may be deposited in the mucus lining
Uptake From
The Respiratory Tract
Gases which are very water soluble do

not reach the alveoli because they
dissolve in the water of the mucous
membranes with which they first come
into contact.
Lipid soluble gases which reach the
alveoli may be readily absorbed into
the blood through the very thin alveoli
epithelium.
Uptake From The Skin
For intact skin, the main

barrier to absorption is the
epidermis and, in particular,
the dead cell layer of the
stratum corneum (horny
layer), across which movement
is by passive diffusion.
Fat soluble substances such as some

organophosphate pesticides and
polychlorinated organic molecules
may cross the skin quite rapidly.
Ions and readily water soluble
molecules mostly penetrate the skin
slowly by passage through the hair
follicles and sebaceous glands.
The thinnest stratum corneum (<

0,01 mm) is found in the eyelids
and scrotum and the thickest (1
mm) on the palms of the hands
and on the soles of the feet.

However, thickness and resistance to
absorption of toxicants are not
necessarily proportional.
The thick horny pads on the hands
and soles of the feet are at least as
permeable to water and some other
substances as the thinner stratum
corneum elsewhere in the body.

Sole of the foot > scrotum > palm of the
hand > back of the hand > forehead and
scalp > arms, legs, trunk.
The stratum corneum may change with
age. Preterm infants may have a skin
permeability to chemicals 100 to 1000
times greater than full term infants.
Skin disease may also affect absorption.
In general, diseases of the skin seem to
result in increased permeability.
More hazardous agents get into your

body by inhalation (by being
breathed in) than by any other
route.
How do you know whether you

are being exposed to
respiratory hazards at work?
Your body has
several built-in
mechanisms which
can act as warning
signals when hazards
are present: smell,
sneezing, coughing,
a runny nose.
Points To Remember
More hazardous agents get into
your body by inhalation than by
any other route of entry.
Although your body filters many of
the normal pollutants from the air
you breathe, it cannot eliminate
every type of contaminant.
Points To Remember
Small particles are difficult for the

body to eliminate and can get deep
into the lungs where they can cause
respiratory problems.
Workers in dusty occupations are
more susceptible to respiratory
diseases than workers in non-dusty
occupations.
Points To Remember
Chemicals, in their various forms,

can be inhaled and damage
various target organs as well as
the lungs.
It is important to notice warning
signals, such as smelling
chemical odors.
Points To
Remember
It is also important to notice if you
stop smelling a chemical odor that
you used to smell, you may be
accustomed or used to the
smell and not know that you are
being exposed to the chemical.
Ingestion
Ingestion is another way in which
chemical substances can enter the
body.
Entry via ingestion is possible when
workers eat or smoke with
contaminated hands or eat their
meals at their workstation where
food and drink may be
Ingestion
A second way in which chemical

substances are ingested is when inhaled
particles are transported to the throat by
the air passageways into the lungs, and
swallowed.
The digestive system consists of the
esophagus, the stomach, and the small
and large intestine.
Absorption of food and other substances,
including ingested hazardous chemicals,
Ingestion
It is dangerous to consume food and
drink, or to smoke at a workstation
where chemicals are used.
The food or drink may be
contaminated by dirty hands or even
vapors in the air.
Skin Absorption
Absorption through the skin constitutes

another route of entry.
The thickness of the skin, together with its
natural covering of sweat and grease,
provide some protection against chemical
exposure.
The solubility of chemicals (such as organic
solvents and phenol) in fats enables their
absorption through the skin. If the skin is
damaged by cuts or abrasions, or is
diseased, the chemical would be absorbed
Excretion
Chemical substances that enter the

body through inhalation, ingestion or
skin absorption will leave the body
through the urine.
Others will be excreted unchanged
via breathing or urination. These
substances may cause damage to
internal organs.
Concentration
And Type Of Exposure
The damage done by a chemical to
a specific organ depends in
principle on the amount (dose)
absorbed.
In the case of inhalation, the dose
depends mainly on the
concentration of the substance in
the air and the duration of the
Concentration
And Type of Exposure
Therefore a short-term exposure to a
high-level concentration may result in
acute effects (acute poisoning), whereas
exposure to a low concentration spread
over a long period of time, which would
result in the same absorbed amount of the
toxic substance, may be tolerated but may
result in an even higher cumulative dose
resulting in chronic effects.
Combined
Effects of Chemicals
Occupational exposure is rarely confined to

a single chemical.
The combined chemicals will be stored in
tissues or organs, with effect of multiple
exposure to chemicals is an area very little
being excreted.
Some will be changed for which sufficient
information is often lacking.
Combined Effects of
Chemicals
Combined
Effects of Chemicals
Because of this lack of information

on the combined effects of
chemicals, multiple exposure should
be avoided or reduced to the lowest
possible level.
Hypersusceptible Group
There is great variation in individual
response a chemical.
Exposure to a particular dose over a
similar time period will induce different
responses among different people.
Some may be severely affected and some
may be mildly affected, while others may
show no apparent effects.
Individual sensitivity may also depend on
age, sex and general state of health.
Hypersusceptible Group
Children, for example, will be more

sensitive than adults. The unborn fetus
may be very susceptible to the risks of
chemical substances.
Therefore, in the recognition of
potential hazards, individual variation
in sensitivity should be taken into
account. skin, the eyes and the
respiratory tract.
Health Effects
Once toxic chemicals get into your

body, they can cause a variety of
harmful effects, including immediate
(acute) effects or long-term
(chronic) effects which may not show
up for a number of years after the
exposure occurred.
Toxic chemicals can also produce local
and systemic effects, depending on
the nature of the chemical and the
Toxicity Level
Example
Water
Hexil ether
Ethyl acrylate
Pentachlorophen
ol
Toxicity
None
(0)
Low
(1)
Hazards
None
Mild skin irritant
Moderate Vapor; irritate eyes and

(2-3)
respiratory system
Liquid; irritate skin and
eyes
High
(4)
Chronic exposure can

cause liver and kidney
damage.
Health Hazards
Definition
Examples
Irritants
Inflame living
tissue on contact
Sulfur dioxide
Corrosives
Destroy or eating Phenol, sulfuric

away living
acid, HF, chromic
tissue
acid, caustic
Sensitizers
Cause allergic
reaction
Nickel,
formaldehyde
Target organ
chemicals
Damage specific
organ or system
Tetrachloroethyle
ne CNS, liver)
Health Hazards
Definition
Reproductive
hazards
Mutagens
Change genetic
information in the
sperm or egg
Teratogens
Damage fetus
after conception
Cancer
Cause or are
suspected or are
suspected of
causing cancer
Examples
Lead and PCBs
Vinyl chloride,
benzene
Kinds Of Effects
There are a number of factors that determine
the
type of toxic effect a chemical can have on
you. These factors include:
The chemical composition of the hazardous
substance (certain substances are more
harmful than others because of their
chemical structure);
The physical form of the chemical (dust,
For the majority of chemicals

used in the
workplace, little or nothing is
known about
their immediate or long-term
health effects.
Kinds Of Effects
The route of entry by which the
chemical gets into the body (chemicals
have different routes of entry. Some
chemicals can enter the body in more
than one way.
Different health effects can occur
depending on the route of entry);
Kinds Of Effects
The particular tissues and organs in

which the chemical collects or
localizes;
The frequency, concentration, and
length of exposure; and
The worker's individual response to
the chemical, which can vary a
great deal from person to person.
Toxic Effects of Industrial

Chemicals
Toxic
proper
ty
Part of
body
affecte
d
Time
scale of
appearance
Irritant
or
corrosiv
e
Any,
but
usually
the
eyes,
lungs
and
skin
A few
minutes
to several
days
Effect
Inflammation,
burns and
blisters of
exposed area.
Frequently
healed after
acute
exposure.
Chronic
exposure
may lead to
permanent
Exampl
e Effect
Ammoni
a,
sulfuric
acid,
nitrogen
oxides,
caustic
soda
Toxic Effects of Industrial Chemicals

Toxic
Part of
Time
proper body
scale of
ty
affected appearan
ce
Fibroge- Generally Years
nic
lungs
Effect
Gradual
cumulative
loss of lung
function
leading to
disability
and death if
there is
chronic
exposure
Exampl
e Effect
Bauxite
dust,
asbestos
,
bagasse

Toxic
Part of
proper body
ty
affecte
d
Time
scale of
appearance
Carcino Any
-genic organs,
but
frequent
ly skin,
lungs,
bladder
Any
organs,
but
frequently
skin,
lungs,
bladder
Effect Example
Effect
Cancer in
affected
organ or
tissue.
Ultimately
this may
cause
premature
death.
2Naphthyla
mine,
certain tars
and oils,
benzidine,
asbestos
Toxic Effects of Industrial

Chemicals
Toxic
Part of Time
Effect
proper body
ty
affecte
d
Allergic
scale
of
appear
-ance
Any, but Days to

frequently years
lungs and
skin
In lungs may lead

to chronic
asthma-like
disease and
permanent
disability. In skin
may produce
industrial
dermatitis.
Example
Effect
Toluene,
diisocyanate
(TDI),
amine
hardeners
for epoxy
resins.

Toxic
property
Asphyxiants
Part of
body
affect
ed
Time scale
of
appearanc
e
Lungs
Minutes
Effect Example
Effect
Gases
replace
normal
oxygen
Acetylene
, carbon
dioxide,
nitrogen,
carbon
monoxide
, HCN,
H2S, LPG
Irritant
s
Irritants in the form of mist, gas or
vapor will induce a burning

sensation when in contact with the
upper respiratory tract (nose and
throat).
This is normally caused by soluble
substances such as ammonia,
formaldehyde, sulfur dioxide, acids
and alkalis which are absorbed by
the moist lining of the nose and
Asphyxiation
Asphyxiation refers to
interference with the
oxygenation of the body
tissues.
There are two types: simple
and chemical asphyxiation.
Lack Of Oxygen
Asphyxiants
Asphyxiants interfere with oxygenation of the

tissues and the affected individuals may
suffocate.
This class is generally divided into simple
asphyxiants and chemical asphyxiants.
Simple asphyxiants are physiologically inert
gases that dilute or displace atmospheric
oxygen below that required to maintain blood
levels sufficient for normal tissue respiration.
Asphyxiants
Common examples of asphyxiants are
carbon dioxide, ethane, helium, hydrogen,
methane and nitrogen.
Asphyxiants deprive the body of the
needed oxygen that must be transported
from the lungs via the blood stream to the
cells.
With complete deprivation of oxygen,
brain cells perish in 3-5 minutes.
Total asphyxiation leads to complete
absence of oxygen in the blood (anoxia).
Simple Asphyxiation
This refers to a condition whereby

oxygen in the air is replaced by
an inert gas such as nitrogen,
carbon dioxide, ethane, hydrogen
or helium to a level where it
cannot sustain life.
Simple Asphyxiation
Normal air contains about 21 per cent of

oxygen.
If this concentration falls below about
17 per cent, the body tissues will be
deprived of their supply of oxygen,
causing symptoms such as dizziness,
nausea and loss of coordination.
This type of situation may occur in
confined workplaces. A further reduction
of oxygen may cause unconsciousness
Chemical Asphyxiants
Through their direct action, chemical

asphyxiants prevent the uptake of oxygen
by the blood, interfere with the
transportation of oxygen from the lungs to
the tissues, or prevent normal
oxygenation of tissues even when the
blood is well-oxygenated.
Carbon monoxide prevents oxygen
transport by preferentially combining with
hemoglobin.
Hydrogen cyanide inhibits enzyme

systems, particularly the cytochrome
oxidase system necessary for cellular
oxygen use.
Hydrogen sulfide paralysis the
respiratory center of the brain and the
olfactory nerve.
At sufficiently high levels, all three of
these chemicals asphyxiants can cause
almost instantaneous collapse and
Concentrations of 0.05 per cent of carbon
monoxide in the air may considerably
reduce the capacity of the blood to carry
oxygen to the various tissues of the body.
Another example is the toxic effect of
hydrogen cyanide or hydrogen sulfide.
These substances interfere with the cells'
ability to accept oxygen even though the
blood is rich in oxygen..
CNS Depressants
CNS depressants (CNSDs) can produce
unconsciousness and many of the same
symptoms that asphyxiants cause.
They prevent the central nervous system
(brain and spinal cord) from doing its normal
job.
CNSDs exert their principal action by
causing simple anesthesia without serious
systemic effects, unless the dose is massive.
CNS Depressants
Depending on the concentration,
the depth of anesthesia ranges
from mild symptoms to complete
loss of consciousness and death.
In accidents involving very high
concentrations, death may be due
to simple asphyxiation.
Narcosis and Anesthesia

Exposure to relatively high
concentrations of certain chemicals
such as ethyl and propyl alcohols
(aliphatic alcohol), acetone and
methylethyl ketones (aliphatic
ketone), acetylene hydrocarbons,
and ethyl and isopropyl ethers
depresses the central nervous
system.
Narcosis and Anesthesia
These chemicals will induce an effect

similar to being drunk.
Single exposure to a high
concentration may result in
unconsciousness or even death.
There are also cases where workers
have become addicted to these
substances.
Sensitizers
The pattern of sensitization varies
according to the species.
In humans, the skin and the eyes
are the most common areas of
allergic response, whereas, for
example, in the guinea pig
reactions are more common in the
respiratory system.
Systemic Poisoning
The human body is made up of many

systems.
Systemic poisoning refers to the adverse
response induced by chemicals to one or
more body systems, which in turn spreads
throughout the body. The effect is not
localized at any one spot or area of the
body.
One of the tasks of the liver is to purify
any noxious substances from the blood by
converting them to harmless and water-
Systemic Poisoning
However, some chemical substances

cause damage to the liver.
Depending on the dose and frequency of
exposure, repeated damage to liver
tissues may cause injury resulting in
scarring (cirrhosis) and decreased liver
function.
Liver injury can be caused by chemicals
such as solvents (alcohol, carbon
tetrachloride, trichloroethylene,
chloroform) and may be mistaken for
hepatitis, as the symptoms (yellowish skin
and eyes) produced by these chemicals
The kidneys are part of the urinary

system.
Their task is to excrete waste
products generated by the body,
maintain the balance of water
and salts, and control and maintain
the acidity level of the blood. .
Kidney
Chemicals that prevent the kidneys
from excreting poisonous products
include carbon tetrachloride,
ethylene glycol and carbon
disulphide.
Other chemicals such as cadmium,
lead, turpentine, methanol, toluene
and xylene will slowly deteriorate
the kidney function.
Certain chemicals may impede

the
normal functions of the kidneys
The Nervous System

The nervous system controls body
function, and can be damaged by certain
chemicals.
Chronic exposure to solvents has been
linked to symptoms such as fatigue,
sleep difficulties, headache and nausea.
More serious cases cause motor
disturbances, paralysis and an impaired
sense of perception.
The Nervous System

Exposure to hexane, manganese and
lead has been associated with effects
on the peripheral nerves resulting in
symptoms of "wrist drop".
Exposure to organophosphate
compounds such as parathion may
cause the nervous system to fail.
Another example is carbon disulphide,
which has been linked with cases of
mental disorder (psychosis).
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE

WORKPLACE
Reproductive System
Reproductive Hazards
Reproductive hazards are chemicals that

cause sterility, fetal death, and/or birth
defects.
Mutagens are reproductive hazards that
permanently change the genes in the egg
or sperm. The change in the genes can be
drastic enough to prevent conception,
making a man or woman sterile.
Teratogens are reproductive hazards that
damage the fetus during pregnancy,
causing either death or birth defects.
Exposure to certain chemicals may also

have negative effects on the reproductive
system, producing sterility in men and
causing miscarriages in pregnant women.
Chemicals such as ethylene dibromide,
benzene, anesthetic gases, chloroprene,
lead, organic solvents and carbon
disulphide have been linked with the
reduction of fertility in male workers.
Miscarriages are linked with

exposure to anesthetic gas,
mercury ethylene oxide,
glutaraldehyde, chloroprene, lead,
organic solvents, carbon disulphide
and vinyl chloride.
Many workers are exposed to such
hazards everyday at work. Working with

particular substances or under certain
work situations may cause some workers
to experience abnormalities in their
sexual or reproductive health.
Many workers may not know that such
problems can be related to occupational
exposures.
While the information is minimal,
much of what is known about the
effects of workplace substances on
male and female reproductive
systems has been learned, in fact,
by studying exposed workers, their
spouses and children.
Reproduction results from a complex series
of events involving both parents.
It begins with each parents genetic
contribution (chromosome) and ends with
expression of the genes acquired by the
offspring.
Every step in the reproductive process is
vulnerable to effects from external
physical and chemical agents.
Chromosomal replication, sexual
function, ovulation,
conception/fertilization, embryo
implantation, placental function,
fetal development, labor, delivery,
and even child development are
component of the reproduction
process.
Mutagenesis
A mutagen is an agent that
affects the genetic material of the
exposed organism.
It may cause cancer, birth
defects, or undesirable effects in
latter generation. People who
work with a certain chemical may
not be harmed, but their offspring
can be.
Mutagenesis
The problem of time lag between exposure

and effect is particularly severe for
mutagenic agents.
Mutations will not show up until the next
generation at the earliest and may not
appear for several generations.
The long latency makes it difficult to
discover the connection between the
exposure and the manifestation of genetic
Mutagens
Mutagens are chemical or physical
agents that cause inheritable
changes in the chromosomes.
A mutagen might have an effect
on somatic cells but no on germ
cells. In this case, its effects are not
passed on to offspring, but depend
on the kind of cell affected.
Teratogenesis
Teratogenesis (congenital
malformation) results from
interference with normal embryonic
development by a biological,
chemical, or physical agent.
Teratogenesis
Exposure of a pregnant female may,

under certain conditions, produce
malformations of the fetus without
inducing damage to the mother or killing
the fetus. Such malformations are not
hereditary.
In contrast, malformations resulting from
changes in the genetic material are
mutations and are hereditary.
Exposure to certain hazardous substances
or hazardous work conditions can affect
reproductive health before or after
conception takes place.
Some occupational hazards, particularly
certain chemicals and radiation, can
seriously affect a developing embryo or
foetus (also written fetus).
Adverse effects due to exposure can also
occur after birth, affecting the development
of a baby or child.
While these effects are not considered
reproductive hazards, it is important to
know that newborns and children are
particularly vulnerable to the effects of
hazardous substances
Points to Remember
Thousands of hazardous chemicals are
produced and used in a wide variety of
workplaces worldwide.
Some of these substances can have
negative effects on the reproductive health
of workers who are exposed to them.
There are also physical and biological
agents and a variety of work situations that
may result in negative reproductive health
outcomes when workers are exposed to
them.
Points to Remember
Little is known about the potential
for damage to the reproductive
system from exposure to certain
substances, agents, or work
situations.
Despite the lack of adequate
information, many workers are
forced to work with and be exposed
Points to Remember
Workers and unions need to be as
informed as possible about the
substances used in their workplaces.
Protective measures should be
implemented to ensure that pregnant
workers and workers (male or female)
planning to have a child are not
exposed to known or suspected
reproduction health hazards.
Human Reproductive Toxicity

Developmental effects
Carbon disulfide
Carbon monoxide
Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether
Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether acetate
Ethyelene glycol monomethyl ether
Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether acetate

Developmental effects (continued)
Ionizing radiation
Lead
Mercury (compounds)
Methyl bromide
PCB (polychlorinated biphenyl)
2,3,7,8-tetrachlrodibenzo paradioxin
(TCDD)

Female reproductive toxicity
Alkylating/antineoplastic agents
Arsenic
Carbon disulfide
Ethylene oxide
Ionizing radiation
Mercury

Male reproductive toxicity
Carbon disulfide
1,2-dibromo-3-chlropropane (DBCP)
Dinitrobenzene
Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether acetate
Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether acetate
Lead
Corrosives
Corrosives are chemicals capable of
actually destroying or eating away
certain substances including human
tissues.
Swallowing corrosives can severely
damage your mouth, esophagus, and
stomach.
Many acids and alkalis are corrosives.
For example: hydrofluoric acid causes
severe skin burns and damage nerve
Corrosivity
A solid waste that falls into one of the
following
categories is considered a hazardous waste
because of its corrosivity :
a. An aqueous material with pH less than or
equal to 2 or greater than or equal to
12,5.
b. A liquid that corrodes steel at a rate
greater
than 0,25 inch per year at a temperature
of
Target-Organ Chemicals
Target-organ chemicals damage specific

organs or body systems. Such chemicals
may enter the body at one place and
travel to the target organ somewhere
else.
For example, tetrachloroethane (a

degreasing solvent) damage both the
liver and the central nervous system.
Reproductive hazards are chemicals that
cause sterility, fetal death, and/or
birth defects.
Mutagens are reproductive hazards that
permanently change the genes in the egg
or sperm. The change in the genes can be
drastic enough to prevent conception,
making a man or woman sterile.
Teratogens are reproductive hazards that
damage the fetus during pregnancy,
causing either death or birth defects.
Carcinogenesis
Carcinogens are chemicals that
cause cancer or have the potential
to cause cancer.
Carcinogens are extremely
hazardous because many cancers
are deadly, and safe exposure levels
to cancer-causing chemicals are not
known.
CNS
Lungs
Cotton dust
Aluminium dust
Asbestos fiber
Silica
Liver
Tetrachloro
e-thane,
Vinyl
chloride,
Carbon
tetrachlorid
e
Tetrachloroethane
Mercury
Carbon disulfide
Heart
Chlorofor
m
Kidneys
Mercury,
Methyl
bromide,
Uranium
CHEMICAL ASSOCIATED
WITH CANCER IN HUMANS (IARC)
LUNG :
Asbestos, Vinyl chloride, CMME,
BCME, Iron oxide (?), Arsenic (?)
SKIN :
Arsenic, PCBs (?),
Soot, Tars,Mineral oils
LIVER :
Vinyl chloride, Arsenic, CCl4
Aflatoxins (?), Oxymetholone
BLOOD :
Benzene
Melphalan
Chloroambucil
Cyclophosphamide (?)
Ethylene oxide (?)
Thiotepa (?)
BRAIN :
Vinyl chloride
GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
Asbestos
Ethylene oxide (?)
KIDNEY :
Phenacetin (?)
BLADDER :
4-Aminobiphenyl
Auramine
Magenta
Benzidine
Chlornaphazine
2-Naphthylamine
Soot, Tars, Mineral oils
Cyclophosmide (?)
Phenacetin (?)
Controlling Hazards
Hirarki Pengendalian
1
Eliminasi
Substitusi
3
4
5
Rekayasa/
Engineerin
g
Pengendalian
Administratif
Alat Pelindung
Diri
Management
Many countries now have some kind of
hazard information or right-to-know
legislation.
These laws make it the employer's legal
responsibility to provide workers with as
much information and training as possible
on all chemical substances used. Some
unions have negotiated agreements which
require that the union be given full
information on all chemicals used in the
Management
Unfortunately, many employers do not
have this information and may not know
where to get it.
If this describes your situation, then the
health and safety representative should
insist that the employer obtains
information from the chemical
manufacturer or the supplier and makes it
available to the workers.
These laws make it the employer's legal
responsibility to provide workers with as
much information and training as possible
Ask management for information.

Make sure that the company fulfils
its obligation to inform workers
about workplace hazards.
Which Control Method To

Choose
Points to Remember
If you cannot completely eliminate a
hazard, then use a combination of
control methods to protect yourself
and your co-workers from being
exposed to occupational hazards.
Points to Remember
For control measures to be of any value,
the atmosphere in the workplace must be
monitored (checked) regularly for levels of
hazardous materials.
Health and safety representatives must
always check on operating systems and
look for signs of hazards in the workplace,
such as the smell
of fumes, lack of ventilation, etc.
Control Measures
Work with the union and the employer to
eliminate hazards wherever possible.
If new work processes are being discussed,
or equipment purchases are being planned,
try to get agreement from the employer to
place safety as a priority in the planning
process.
For example, only machines that meet
national or internationally recognized safety
standards should be purchased.
Control Measures
Similarly, if a chemical has been
banned or severely restricted by
any government, it should not be
used.
When hazards cannot be
eliminated, then a combination of
control methods is the best way
to prevent exposure.
Control Measures
If you are looking for safer substitute
chemicals, try to find out whether the
proposed substitute chemicals really are
safer.
Try to get information on substitute
chemicals from: your employer, the
chemical manufacturer, your union, local
factory or labour inspectorate, local
colleges or universities, the local fire
department, your local library, ITSs
(International Trade Secretariats) or the ILO
Control Measures
It is best to enclose all toxic materials or
work processes using toxic materials.
However, since this is often not possible,
try to get the employer to enclose at least
all highly toxic materials.
When using administrative controls, it is
important that employers use other
protective measures at the same time to
prevent exposing workers to hazards.
Administrative controls only reduce the
amount of time you are exposed they
Control Measures
PPE is the least effective method of
hazard control and should be used only
when hazards cannot be controlled
sufficiently by other methods.
Before requiring the use of PPE, the
employer should demonstrate to the
union that he or she has tried to control
hazards with engineering controls, but
was not able to reduce exposures to
safe levels.
Control Measures
Try to get agreement from the
employer to implement effective
engineering controls and eliminate
the need for PPE by a specified date.
PPE should always be used together
with other control measures.
Control Measures
Remember that the effectiveness of some
PPE decreases in hot, humid working
conditions.
When purchasing PPE, try to get items
that have been designed in accordance
with recognized standards set by relevant
institutions. Also, try to get the employer
to purchase protective clothing in sizes to
fit the workers who will wear the PPE.
Control Measures
Workers who must use PPE should be
trained before using the equipment and
should receive refresher training at least
once a year.
Workers using PPE should participate in a
company-sponsored medical surveillance
program (if the employer will not provide
this then the union may want to sponsor
such a program).
Control Measures
Washing/toilet facilities should be a priority
among union demands for a healthier and
safer working environment.
It is possible to provide adequate
washing/toilet facilities for a minimum
cost. Workers should be encouraged to
wash/shower regularly, not only when they
think they may be contaminated.
Control Measures
First-aid facilities and adequate
personnel trained in first aid
should
be a priority among union
demands
for a healthier and safer working
environment.
Control Measures
Try to get your employer to provide
laundry
facilities so that workers do not have to
launder their work clothes at home.
Workers
should be educated about the
importance of
washing work clothes separately not
with
the family's clothes.
This is particularly important if workers
Control Measures
Workers should be provided with eating

and break areas away from their work
areas to prevent ingesting hazards and for
a more pleasant work environment.
Work with the union and employer to make
sure the atmosphere in the workplace is
monitored regularly for levels of hazardous
materials.
Some control methods are better than

others, but no single method of control
can completely protect workers from
hazards.
If a hazard cannot be completely
eliminated, then a combination of
methods should be used to reduce
hazards to safe levels (levels that will
not place workers' health at risk).
Some methods of control cost less than
others but may not reduce hazards
effectively.
The responsibility for preventing exposure

is often placed on workers, requiring them
to wear protective clothing, which is
usually very uncomfortable in the hot and
humid conditions that exist in many
workplaces.
Personal protective equipment, such as
respirators, protective suits and ear muffs,
should be thought of as providing a
back-up for other techniques that are
designed to control hazards at the source.
A worker soldering in a dirty shop

without ventilation and with no
PPE
Question: What is wrong with this picture? What is

missing? How will this situation lead to this worker
being exposed to the lead used in the soldering
process? Could this situation also cause his family
to be exposed to lead? How? What suggestions can
you make to prevent this situation?
Picture of local exhaust

ventilation system while the
same worker is soldering
A worker is dry sweeping dust

from soldering area
Picture shows a worker cleaning

up
the worksite with an industrial
vacuum
cleaner
A worker is eating
something in
the work area
Picture shows a worker

washing his hands. There are
clean towels, and a lunch room
sign.
Picture shows shower and

locker areas
How to find a safer alternative

to a dangerous chemical
You will need to know the generic name of

the chemical you wish to replace.
Determine which chemical group the
chemical belongs to. For example, methyl
ethyl ketone belongs in general to the
solvent group.
Among the solvents, it belongs to a chemical
category called ketones.
How to find a safer

alternative
to a dangerous
chemical
Identify the chemicals with similar
properties by checking the
Chemical Groups List.
For example, methyl ethyl ketone
is listed with other ketones, such
as acetone and methyl isobutyl
ketone.
Substitution
Compare the health and fire risks of each

of the chemicals in the group to see which
is less hazardous. Among the ketones, for
example, acetone is considered to be safer
to use than other ketones.
When comparing chemicals, it is
absolutely essential (1) to consider how
the chemical is to be used, (2) to review
several medical texts which describe the
toxicity of the chemical, and (3) to consult
an expert on chemical toxicology.
Substitution
If any chemical is associated
with causing cancer, mutations
(changes in cells), or birth
defects, it should be replaced
immediately with a chemical
which does not pose these risks.
Hazard Data Sheets

Hazard data sheets (HDSs)
(sometimes called material safety
data sheets (MSDSs) or chemical
safety data sheets (CSDSs)) are
detailed information sheets on
chemicals.
HAZARD DATA SHEETS

They are generally prepared and made
available by chemical manufacturers, or
programmes such as : the International
Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS, which
is a joint activity of the World Health
Organization (WHO), the International Labour
Organization (ILO), and the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP).
Hazard Data Sheets

HDSs are important and accessible sources
of information on chemicals, but their
quality can vary. If you use or plan to use
HDSs, be aware of their limitations. For
example, they are often difficult to read and
understand.
Another serious limitation is that they often
do not contain enough information about
the hazards and the necessary precautions
you need to take when working with certain
Hazard Data Sheets

To overcome these limitations,
whenever possible use other
sources of information together
with HDSs (MSDSs).
It is a good idea for health and
safety representatives to keep a
hazard data sheet on each
chemical used in the workplace.
Controlling Hazards
Once you recognize a hazard, then you can

determine which measure will correct the
problem most effectively.
Generally, there are five major categories of
control measures: elimination, substitution,
engineering controls, administrative
controls and personal protective equipment.
Eliminating a hazard means removing it
completely; substitution is replacing one
hazardous agent or work process with a less
dangerous one.
Controlling Hazards
An engineering control may mean
changing a piece of machinery (for
example, using proper machine guards) or
a work process to reduce exposure to a
hazard; working a limited number of hours
in a hazardous area is an example of an
administrative control (for example, job
rotation); and
Personal protective equipment (PPE)
includes ear and eye protection,
respirators, and protective clothing.
Points to Remember
Occupational hazards can be controlled by a
variety of methods. The goal of controlling
hazards is to prevent workers from being
exposed to occupational hazards.
The most effective control measure is
to control hazards at the source by
eliminating the hazard or by substituting a
hazardous chemical, machine, work
process, etc., with a less dangerous one.
Points to Remember
It is important to recognize hazards and

health and safety problems in the
workplace.
There are five general categories of control
measures: elimination, substitution,
engineering controls, administrative controls
and personal protective equipment.
A combination of methods usually provides
a safer and healthier workplace than relying
on only one method. Personal protective
equipment should be the last choice in
Controlling Hazards
Remember : it is always better to
control the hazard as close to the
source as possible. Using personal
protection is the least acceptable
and least effective of all control
measures
Elimination
Elimination of a specific hazard or
hazardous work process, or
preventing it from entering the
workplace,
is
the
most
effective
Eliminating a specific hazard is the
method of control.
most effective method of control. It
is easier to eliminate hazards while
a work process is still in the
development stages
Personal Hygiene
Finally, personal hygiene
(cleanliness) is also very important
as a method of controlling hazards.
Your employer should provide
facilities so you can wash and/or take
a shower every day at the end of
your shift, no matter what your job
is.
Personal Hygiene
Wash your skin and hair with a mild
soap, rinse and dry your skin
completely to protect it.
Washing hands regularly, and eating
and smoking away from your work
area help to prevent ingesting
contaminants.
Personal hygiene is very important in

terms of reducing health hazards. Dirty
clothes can spread hazardous
substances to your family.
Personal Hygiene
It may seem that the amount of
contaminant you can bring home on
your clothes or skin is very small
and cannot hurt your family.
In reality a small exposure every
day for months can add up to a big
exposure.
Do not take workplace

hazards home with you !
Personal Hygiene
A classic example of this spreading
the hazard involves asbestos, where
wives of asbestos workers have
developed asbestosis from exposure
to the asbestos on their husbands'
work clothes.
Similarly, children have developed
lead poisoning from exposure to lead
which comes home on their parents'
Personal Hygiene
If you wear protective clothing at

work, such as aprons, laboratory
coats, overalls, etc., these should be
cleaned regularly and you should
inspect them for holes or areas that
are worn out.
Personal Hygiene
Workers who launder these clothes should

be trained in the types of hazards they
may work with and how they can be
controlled.
Inspect your underclothes at home for any

signs of contamination with oils, solvents,
etc. If you find any signs, then it means
your protective clothing at work is not
effective.
Make sure you

read and understand
labels before using
chemicals
All chemical containers should

have adequate labels on them
Training On Health and

Safety
Training
Effective training is an important means of

providing information on chemical hazards.
If you work with chemicals, your employer
should provide you with training for the
chemicals you use. Training should
include:
Information on the possible or known
hazards of specific chemicals, including any
health effects;
Information on how to work safely with the
particular chemicals;
Training
Use and care of any protective
equipment that may be necessary;
How to identify whether control
measures are operating effectively;
How to interpret labels, hazard data
sheets and other hazard information
provided on the chemicals.
Training is essential for new

workers.
Existing workers should receive
refresher courses periodically.
Workplace
Inspection
One of the other ways of identifying

chemical hazards in the workplace is by
keeping a record of complaints from coworkers: an increased amount of sickness
or strange symptoms among workers;
etc.
These indicators could tell you there is a
need to identify and investigate particular
Workplace
Inspection
Air monitoring can tell you what the
levels of chemicals are in the
workplace but it can be extremely
difficult to get both the monitoring
equipment and the trained
personnel.
Workplace inspection
Air monitoring can tell you what the
levels of chemicals are in the
workplace but it can be extremely
difficult to get both the monitoring
equipment and the trained
personnel.
Workplace Inspection
Another effective way to identify
hazards is to do an inspection of your
workplace, noting all chemicals used
and the positions of workers, machines,
ventilation (windows, etc.), storage
areas, etc. (you may find it helpful to
make a simple diagram of the
workplace).
Note: Even if air monitoring is done, you
should still do the inspection because it
will provide you with information air
Try to answer the following

questions during your
inspection
What chemicals are used in your
workplace, including the various
work processes and in
maintenance work?
Try to get information from
container or drum labels and
hazard data sheets.

questions during your inspection
What are the exact names of the
chemicals?
Try to find out both the trade names and
the chemical names.
How long has each chemical been in
use and how often is it used? For
example, is it used only on certain
shifts? This information is important
because you may find a connection
between the use of a chemical and
certain workers who have health

How many workers are exposed to the
chemical and for how long?
Have any workers noticed any health
changes that might be connected to the
use of certain chemicals?
Where is the chemical used and how is it
stored?
What is the chemical used for cleaning,
spraying, etc.?

Is it a solid, liquid, gas? Does it change
its form during use (from wood to
sawdust, for example)?
What do your senses tell you can you
see, smell or feel the chemical? Does it
irritate your eyes, give you headaches,
etc.?
What measures have been introduced to
prevent exposure to the chemical
hazard?
If you work with chemicals then

you
should be in a companysponsored
medical surveillance programme
Medical Surveillance
If you work with chemicals, your
employer should make sure that you are
in a company-sponsored medical
surveillance program.
An effective medical surveillance
program should detect any early signs of
health effects that may be related to the
substances you work with.
Medical surveillance includes preemployment and periodic medical
examinations.
Pre-employment medical examinations
help to identify vulnerable workers who
should then be assigned to jobs or
workplaces where their health will not be
at risk.
For example, workers with a history of
lung diseases should not be employed in
dusty areas. (As stated earlier, all jobs
should be safe enough so that even
vulnerable workers will not suffer ill
Periodic examinations help detect early

symptoms of occupational diseases
(which will be a clear sign that control
measures are not effective).
Medical examinations (pre-employment
and periodic) should include biological
monitoring, which includes blood and
urine testing for traces of chemicals and
biological indicators of chemical exposure.
The role of a health and safety

representative dealing with
chemicals.
Summary
Chemicals are used in virtually every
occupation today, even though very
little is known about the damaging
effects they may cause to humans
and the environment.
Toxic substances come in many
different forms and can cause a
variety of health effects, from skin
rashes to cancer.
Summary
Working with chemicals can be
dangerous, therefore all workers
should be well protected against
hazardous substances.
However, eliminating hazardous
substances from the workplace is
still the best method of prevention,
even if adequate control measures
are used.
Summary
Information on industrial chemicals is
vital and should be obtained from your
employer or from the manufacturer of
the chemical. Get the facts on
chemicals from as many sources of
information as possible because most
sources have some limitations.
The Problem
In workplace XYZ, a number of workers
dip machine parts into a degreasing tank
for eight hours a day. The process uses a
common solvent called 1,1,1trichloroethane (TCA).
There are no engineering controls around
the degreasing tank, there is no local
exhaust ventilation, and workers are not
provided with any personal protective
equipment.
The workers have never received any
information or training about the
substance in the tank.
The Problem
A number of workers on the degreasing
process have complained of
headaches, dizziness, nausea and
drowsiness.
Most of the workers say that the
symptoms disappear in the evening
but return when they go back to work
in the morning.
They also notice that they do not
experience these symptoms during
weekends and holidays.
The Problem
The health and safety
representative is very concerned
because the management has
threatened to dismiss several of
the workers, claiming that they
have been drunk on the job.
What short-term and long-term
solutions can you suggest for this
problem?
An uncovered degreasing tank

releasing vapors into the work area
and a covered
degreasing tank which contains the
vapors.
Solutions
Short-term solutions
Find a safer substitute for the chemical.
Something as simple as soap solutions
may work in the short term.
Isolate the work process by moving it to a
well ventilated area.
Enclosure: cover the tanks when they are
not being used. This will prevent vapors
from escaping into the air.
Short-term Solutions
Install fans behind the tank so that
the vapors will be pushed away
from the workers' breathing area.
Insist that the employer provide
respirators and protective clothing,
including gloves, aprons and face
shields for protection against
splashes, for the workers.
Administrative controls: rotate
workers so their exposure time is
decreased.
Long-term Solutions
Eliminate the chemical altogether.
Engineering controls: effective local
exhaust ventilation - hoods or flexible
suction hoses - should be installed to
draw the vapors away from the
worker.
Make sure the work process is
performed only in a well ventilated
area.
Ask management for information on
the chemical.
Long-term Solutions
Write to the chemical manufacturer
for information on the chemical.
Insist that the employer provide
information and training to the
workers.
Negotiate contract language that
gives workers the right to refuse
extremely dangerous work.
Picture shows a worker cleaning

up the worksite with an industrial
vacuum cleaner.
A worker eating something

in the
work area
Will this respirator prevent the

worker
from breathing in dusts or other
hazardous
substances?
EYE PROTECTION
Bump cap face shield
and prescription for this
employee. Shields are
available in clear light
green, dark green
Chemical cartridge
respirator
Self Contained
Breathing
Apparatus (SCBA)
Gas Filter
Sealing strip
Air outlet
Cover cap
Nuckle thread connection
Gas filter
(Active charcoal)
Air inlet
Particle Filter
Cover cap
Filter Sleeve
Particle Filter
Coarse dust filter
Sieve
1.Prefilter
2.Dust filter
Gas filter
Combination
filter
A Dust mask
respirator
Full facepiece
cartridge
respirator
BREATHING APPARATUS
CHEMICAL CARTRIDGE
RESPIRATOR AND SCBA
Air Supplying Hood
Man and Material Fully

Protected
Self Contained Breathing

Apparatus
(SCBA)
BREATHING APPARATUS
(AIRLINE RESPIRATOR)
Air Supplying Respirator
AIR-PURIFYING RESPIRATOR
(FILTER + ADSORBENT)
CHEMICAL CHECKLIST
Chemical Checklist
Instructions
Read through the check-list and spend
some time familiarizing yourself with the
workplace before starting to check.
Decide on the work areas to be checked. If
your workplace is a small enterprise then
the whole production area can be checked.
If it is a larger enterprise, particular work
areas can be selected which you may want
to check separately.
You may want to make copies of this
check-list if you have different work areas
to check.
Chemical Checklist
Continued
Read each item on the check-list. As you

fill out the check-list, ask fellow workers
(and the foreman) questions if
necessary. After you have completed the
check-list, look at the items you marked
NO.
Identify those items that require
immediate attention and mark them as
PRIORITY.
Chemical Checklist
Continued
Discuss the priority areas with your

union and with the health and safety
committee if you have one.
Try to plan strategies for improving the
high-priority problem areas.
When evaluating your workplace, check
for the following:
Safe Procedures and Practices

1. Are all chemicals clearly labelled with the
name and origin of the chemical, name of
the supplier, the danger symbol(s), hazard
information, and advice for using the
chemical safely?
2. Have chemicals been relabelled if they have
been transferred into smaller containers?
3. Are labels and instructions on chemical
containers in a language that workers
understand?

4. Are all chemicals stored in appropriate,
safe containers?
5. Are chemical storage areas well
ventilated and located away from sources
of ignition?
6. Are appropriate devices used to allow the
safe transport and transfer of chemicals?
7. Are small spills cleaned up immediately?
8. Is monitoring done to ensure the area is
safe to continue work?

9. Are chemical wastes, including empty
containers that have had chemicals in
them, properly disposed of so that they
do not present a risk to workers or the
environment?
10. Does management inform workers of
proper procedures for the safe storage,
transportation and disposal of
chemicals?
Control Measures
11. Can toxic chemicals be substituted with
less
toxic ones?
12. Are processes that emit dusts, vapors or
mists isolated?
13. Are processes that emit dusts, vapors or
mists enclosed?
14. Are there local ventilation systems
operating?
Control Measures
15. Do they reduce contaminants in
the work area?
16. Does natural ventilation provide
adequate air exchange?
17. Are there fans and/or mechanical
devices operating to improve
general
ventilation?
Hazard identification
18. Are flammable chemicals stored in such
a way
as to prevent the formation of flammable
or
explosive mixtures?
19. Are there any open flames near where
flammable chemicals are used,
transferred or
stored?
20. Are floor areas, work benches and
machinery
Hazard identification
21. Are passageways well marked
and
free of debris?
22. Are storage racks provided
around
work stations for raw materials
and
finished products?
Personal Protective Equipm

23. Is PPE provided only when other
methods of control cannot eliminate the
risk of workers being exposed to
chemicals?
24. Is PPE well maintained and inspected
regularly?
25. Are workers provided with appropriate
eye and skin protection when there is a
possibility of chemical splash?
Exposure Monitoring
26. Is there a person
designated to monitor
workers' exposure at regular
intervals?
27. Are pre-employment medical
examinations required for workers
assigned to hazardous chemical
areas?
28. Are workers handling hazardous
chemicals given regular medical
examinations?
Training and Education

29. Are new workers given adequate training
on the hazards of the chemicals they
work with, safe work practices and
emergency procedures?
30. Are existing workers given periodic
refresher training?
31. Are workers trained in the use,
maintenance and storage of PPE?
Management of Chemicals
32. Is there a person or committee
appointed to plan and coordinate
activities on chemical safety?
33. Does the employer have hazard data
sheets on all chemicals used in the
workplace?
34. Are workers and the union involved in
health and safety activities related to the
safe management of chemicals?
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SALAM SEJAHTERA

UNTUK KITA SEMUA

GOD BLESS YOU ALL

Chemicals have improved the

Today, in virtually every

Gases and vapors are employed

In agriculture, workers may be

However, certain chemical

substances can both harm and

or when mixed with other

The misuse of chemical

We must have gold and

All substances are

Toxicology is the science that studies

Environmental toxicology is the

All substances are potential poisons

A more general term for

Ecology is the study of the

The ecosystem embraces the

food chain through which energy

although some components are much

The best estimate of the relative

years has been focused on the effects

Although much has been learned

are a part of everyone's life. At

In many countries, chemicals are dumped

into the environment, often with serious

Chemical : chemical elements and compounds, in

Chemicals can change their physical

Chemicals that are dumped into the

Dust in the workplace should be kept

A vapor is the gas phase of a material

chemical substance to cause poisoning.

LD50 (Lethal Dose 50%)

The LD50 for a particular substance is

Acute LD50 Values For

Lethal Concentration 50%

LC(t)50 is similar and widely used

Lethal Concentration 50%

figures are usually reported

The EPA Guidelines For Acute

A threshold is a point at which a

Threshold Limit Values

The ACGIH has established guidelines for

Threshold Limit Values

TLVs refers to airborne

Threshold Limit Values

Short-Term Exposure Limit

TLVs For Mixtures

TLVs For Mixtures

TLVs For Mixtures

There are several possible mode

TLVs For Mixtures

Synergy occurs where the combined

Antagonism occurs when the

TLVs For Mixtures

When two or more hazardous substances

TLVs For Mixtures

Industrial chemicals can be

Toxic chemicals can cause a variety

This tendency to blame the victim is yet

Working around chemicals without the

Effects of chemicals on the

Many employers are not aware of