Chapter 8

Internet Protocol
(IP)
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CONTENTS
DATAGRAM
FRAGMENTATION
OPTIONS
CHECKSUM
IPPACKAGE

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Figure 8-1

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PositionofIPinTCP/IPprotocolsuite

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8.1
DATAGRAM

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Figure 8-2

IPdatagram

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Figure 8-3

ServiceTypeorDifferentiatedServices

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Theprecedencesubfieldis
notusedinversion4.

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Thetotallengthfielddefinesthe
totallengthofthe
datagramincludingtheheader.

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Figure 8-4

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Encapsulationofasmalldatagram
inanEthernetframe

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Figure 8-5

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Multiplexing

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Example 1

AnIPpackethasarrivedwiththefirst8bits
asshown:
01000010
Thereceiverdiscardsthepacket.Why?

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Solution
There is an error in this packet. The 4 leftmost
bits(0100)showtheversion,whichiscorrect.The
next 4 bits (0010) show the header length, which
means(248),whichiswrong.Theminimum
number of bytes in the header must be 20. The
packethasbeencorruptedintransmission.

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Example 2

InanIPpacket,thevalueofHLENis1000
in binary. How many bytes of options are
beingcarriedbythispacket?

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Solution
The HLEN value is 8, which means the total
numberofbytesintheheaderis84or32bytes.
Thefirst20bytesarethemainheader,thenext12
bytesaretheoptions.

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Example 3

InanIPpacket,thevalueofHLENis516and
the value of the total length field is 002816.
Howmanybytesofdataarebeingcarriedby
thispacket?

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Solution
The HLEN value is 5, which means the total
numberofbytesintheheaderis54or20bytes
(no options). The total length is 40 bytes, which
means the packet is carrying 20 bytes of data
(4020).

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Example 4

An IP packet has arrived with the first few

hexadecimal digits as shown below:
45000028000100000102...................
Howmanyhopscanthispackettravelbefore
being dropped? The data belong to what
upperlayerprotocol?
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Solution

To find the timetolive field, we should skip 8

bytes (16 hexadecimal digits). The timetolive
fieldistheninthbyte,whichis01.Thismeansthe
packetcantravelonlyonehop.Theprotocolfield
is the next byte (02), which means that the upper
layerprotocolisIGMP.

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8.2
FRAGMENTATION

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Figure 8-6

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MTU

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Figure 8-7

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Flagfield

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Figure 8-8

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Fragmentationexample

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Figure 8-9

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Detailed
example

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Example 5

ApackethasarrivedwithanMbitvalueof
0.Isthisthefirstfragment,thelastfragment,
or a middle fragment? Do we know if the
packetwasfragmented?

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Solution

If the M bit is 0, it means that there are no more

fragments; the fragment is the last one. However,
we cannot say if the original packet was
fragmented or not. A nonfragmented packet is
consideredthelastfragment.

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Example 6

ApackethasarrivedwithanMbitvalueof
1.Isthisthefirstfragment,thelastfragment,
or a middle fragment? Do we know if the
packetwasfragmented?

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Solution

IftheMbitis1,itmeansthatthereisatleastone
morefragment.Thisfragmentcanbethefirstone
or a middle one, but not the last one. We dont
knowifitisthefirstoneoramiddleone;weneed
more information (the value of the fragmentation
offset). However, we can definitely say the
originalpackethasbeenfragmentedbecausetheM
bitvalueis1.
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Example 7

ApackethasarrivedwithanMbitvalueof1
and a fragmentation offset value of zero. Is
thisthefirstfragment,thelastfragment,ora
middlefragment?

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Solution

Because the M bit is 1, it is either the first

fragmentoramiddleone.Becausetheoffsetvalue
is0,itisthefirstfragment.

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Example 8

A packet has arrived in which the offset

valueis100.Whatisthenumberofthefirst
byte? Do we know the number of the last
byte?

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Solution

To find the number of the first byte, we multiply

theoffsetvalueby8.Thismeansthatthefirstbyte
number is 800. We cannot determine the number
of the last byte unless we know the length of the
data.

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Example 9

A packet has arrived in which the offset

valueis100,thevalueofHLENis5andthe
valueofthetotallengthfieldis100.Whatis
the number of the first byte and the last
byte?

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Solution

Thefirstbytenumberis100 8800.Thetotal
length is 100 bytes and the header length is 20
bytes(54),whichmeansthatthereare80bytes
in this datagram. If the first byte number is 800,
thelastbytenumbermust879.

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8.3
OPTIONS

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Figure 8-10

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Optionformat

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Figure 8-11

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Categoriesofoptions

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Figure 8-12

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Nooperationoption

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Figure 8-13

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Endofoptionoption

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Figure 8-14

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Recordrouteoption

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Figure 8-15

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Recordrouteconcept

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Figure 8-16

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Strictsourcerouteoption

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Figure 8-17

Strictsourcerouteconcept

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Figure 8-18

Loosesourcerouteoption

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Figure 8-19

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Timestampoption

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Figure 8-20

Useofflagintimestamp

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Figure 8-21

Timestampconcept

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Example 10

Which of the six options must be copied to

eachfragment?

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Solution
Welookatthefirst(leftmost)bitofthecodefor
eachoption.
Nooperation:Codeis00000001;nocopy.
Endofoption:Codeis00000000;nocopy.
Recordroute:Codeis00000111;nocopy.
Strictsourceroute:Codeis10001001;copied.
Loosesourceroute:Codeis10000011;copied.
Timestamp:Codeis01000100;nocopy.
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Example 11

Which of the six options are used for

datagram control and which are used for
debuggingandmanagement?

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Solution
Welookatthesecondandthird(leftmost)bitsof
thecode.
Nooperation:Codeis00000001;control.
Endofoption:Codeis00000000;control.
Recordroute:Codeis00000111;control.
Strictsourceroute:Codeis10001001;control.
Loosesourceroute:Codeis10000011;control.
Timestamp:Codeis01000100;debugging
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8.4
CHECKSUM

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Tocreatethechecksumthesenderdoes
thefollowing:
1.Thepacketisdividedintoksections,
eachofnbits.
2.Allsectionsareaddedtogetherusing
onescomplementarithmetic.
3.Thefinalresultiscomplemented
tomakethechecksum.
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Figure 8-22

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Checksumconcept

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Figure 8-23

Checksuminonescomplementarithmetic

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Figure 8-24

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Exampleof
checksum
calculation
inbinary

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Figure 8-25

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Exampleof
checksum
calculation
in
hexadecimal

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CheckAppendixCforadetailed
descriptionofchecksumcalculation
andthehandlingofcarries.

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8.5
IPPACKAGE

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Figure 8-26

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IP
components

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Figure 8-27

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MTUtable

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Figure 8-28

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Reassemblytable

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