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Essential Nutrients
Criteria to be an Essential nutrient:
1. They must be essential to the health
2. They can not be synthesized by the body
These must be obtained from an animals diet
There are four classes
Essential amino acids
Essential fatty acids
Vitamins
Minerals
Figure 5.16a
Figure 5.16a
Lysine
(Lys or K)
Methionine
(Met or M)
Valine
(Val or V)
Phenylalanine
(Phe or F)
Leucine
(Leu or L)
Tryptophan
(Trp or W)
Isoleucine
(Ile or I)
Threonine
(Thr or T)
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic molecules required
in the diet in very small amounts
Vitamins are grouped into two categories:
fat-soluble and water-soluble
Importance: needed for coenzymes, and
for production of cellular proteins, nucleic
acids, and other cell processes.
Table 41.1
symptoms of defic
Minerals
Minerals are simple inorganic nutrients,
usually required in small amounts
Ingesting large amounts of some minerals,
such as NaCl, can upset homeostatic
balance
Sodium, potassium and chloride are
needed for nerve function, where
they are important for the
establishment of membrane potential
Table 41.2
Essential Mineral
Essential vitamin
Gly
Ile
Iron
Vitamin B3
Leu
Phe
NADH
Phe
Tyr
ESSENTIAL
AMINO ACIDS
Glu
Phospholipids
Fatty acid desaturase
Linoleic acid
-Linoleic acid
Prostaglandins
Anemia
Reduced red blood count due to diet
deficient in iron, folate (B9) and/or
B12
Scurvy
Degeneration of skin and teeth
Due to lack of Vitamin C
Intracellular digestion,
Breaking down of food inside of cell
food particles are engulfed by phagocytosis
- Food vacuoles, containing food, fuse with lysosomes
containing hydrolytic enzymes
Mouth
Tentacles
1 Digestive enzymes
Food
Gastrodermis
Figure 41.8
Esophagus
Crop
Alimentary cana
Gizzard
Intestine
Pharynx
Anus
Mouth
(a) Earthworm
Foregut
Midgut
Hindgut
Rectum
Anus
Esophagus
Mouth
(b) Grasshopper
Crop
More complex
animals have a
digestive tube
with two
openings.
Stomach
Gastric cecae
Gizzard
Intestine
Mouth
Esophagus
Crop
(c) Bird
Anus
1 INGESTION
Mechanical
digestion
2 DIGESTION
3 ABSORPTION
4 ELIMINATION
Chemical
digestion
(enzymatic
hydrolysis)
Nutrient
molecules
enter
body cells
Undigested
material
Mammalian Digestion
Digestion is the process of breaking food
down into molecules small enough to absorb
Chemical digestion splits food into small
molecules that can pass through membranes;
these are used to build larger molecules
In chemical digestion, the process of
enzymatic hydrolysis splits bonds in
molecules with the addition of water
Figure 41.9
Tongue
Oral cavity
Salivary
glands
Pharynx
Mouth
Esophagus
Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas
Sphincter
Rectum
Anus
Gallbladder
Liver
Sphincter
Stomach
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Esophagus
Pancreas
Anus
Duodenum of
small intestine
Salivary
glands
Stomach
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Rectum
Tongue
Epiglottis
up
Pharynx
Esophageal
sphincter
contracted
Glottis
Larynx
Trachea
(a) Trachea open
Esophagus
To To
lungs stomach
Epiglottis
down
Esophageal
sphincter
relaxed
Glottis up
and closed
(b) Esophagus open
Pyloric Sphincter
Gastric gland
Mucous cell
Chief cell
Parietal cell
Epithelium
Activation of Pepsin
3
Pepsinogen
Pepsin
1 Pepsinogen and
2
(active
HCl
enzyme)
Chief
cell
1
2
Cl
H+
Parietal
cell
Pepsin activates
more pepsinogen,
starting a chain
reaction.
Roles of HCl
1. Activation of pepsinogen into pepsin
Role of Pepsin
Stomach Dynamics
Coordinated contraction and relaxation of
stomach muscle churn the stomachs
contents
Sphincters prevent chyme from entering
the esophagus and regulate its entry into
the small intestine
Small Intestine
Site at which most digestion and absorption
of nutrients occurs
1. Duodenum Site of entry for
pancreatic, liver and gall
bladder digestive juices.
Some absorption
2. Jejunum Comprises nearly
half of the small intestine. Site
for most absorption
3. ileum end portion of small
intestine.
Pancreatic Secretions
alkaline solution that neutralizes acidic
chyme
trypsin and chymotrypsin- partial
digestion of proteins. Activated in the lumen
of the duodenum. These enzymes differ
in their specificity to amino acids.
pancreatic amylase digests starch,
producing disaccharides.
Pancreactic Lipase- breaks down fats
Intestinal Enzymes
Enzymes that cleave small peptides
into amino acids are found at the
brush border of the small intestine
The intestinal enzymes maltase,
sucrase, and lactase cleave
disaccharides into monosaccharides.
maltase
Figure 41.12a
Disaccharides
(sucrose,
lactose)
Salivary amylase
Smaller
Maltose
polysaccharides
Figure 41.12b
STOMACH
CARBOHYDRATE
DIGESTION
Smaller
polysaccharides
Maltose
PROTEIN
DIGESTION
Disaccharides
(sucrose,
lactose)
Proteins
Pepsin
Small
polypeptides
Figure 41.12c
Smaller
polysaccha-
rides
Pancreatic
amylases
Disaccharides
Disaccharides
(sucrose,
lactose,
maltose)
PROTEIN
DIGESTION
Small
polypeptides
Pancreatic
trypsin and
chymotrypsin
NUCLEIC ACID
DIGESTION
FAT
DIGESTION
DNA, RNA
Fat
(triglycerides)
Pancreatic
nucleases
Nucleotides
Smaller
polypeptides
Pancreatic
lipase
Pancreatic
carboxypeptidase
Small
peptides
Amino
acids
Glycerol,
fatty acids,
monoglycerides
Figure 41.12d
SMALL INTESTINE
(enzymes from intestinal epithelium)
CARBOHYDRATE
DIGESTION
Disaccharides
(sucrose,
lactose,
maltose)
Disaccharidases
Monosaccharides
PROTEIN
DIGESTION
Small
peptides
NUCLEIC ACID
DIGESTION
Nucleotides
Amino acids
Nucleotidases
Dipeptidases,
carboxypeptidase,
and aminopeptidase
Amino acids
Nucleosidases
and
phosphatases
Nitrogenous bases,
sugars, phosphates
Villi
Large
circular
folds
Villi
Microvilli
(brush border)
at apical (lumenal)
surface
Epithelial
cells
Lumen
(toward
capillary)
Lacteal
Lymph
vessel
Basal
surface
cells
Microvilli
(brush border)
at apical (lumenal)
surface
(toward
capillary)
Basal
surface
Figure 41.14
LUMEN
Triglycerides
OF SMALL
INTESTINE
Epithelial
Fatty
cell
acids Monoglycerides
1 Triglycerides
are broken
down to fatty
acids and
monoglycerides
by lipase.
2 Monoglycerides
Triglycerides
Phospholipids,
cholesterol,
and
proteins
Chylomicron
3 Triglycerides are
incorporated into
chylomicrons.
4 Chylomicrons
Lacteal
enter lacteals
and are carried
away by lymph.
Ascending
portion
of colon
Small
intestine
Appendix
Cecum
Regulation of Digestion
The enteric division of the nervous
system
Autonomic nerve control
Nerve cell bodies found in the wall of the gut
Reflex pathway
Endocrine Regulation
Gastrin secreted by specialized cells in
the stomach wall in response to presence
of amino acid and stomach distention.
Secretin secreted by specialized cells
in the small intestines in response to
amino acids and fats.
Cholecystokinin (CCK) secreted by
specialized cells in the intestines in
response to amino acids and fat.
Liver
Stimulation
Inhibition
Food
Stomach
Gastric Gastrin
juices
Pancreas
Duodenum of
small intestine
There is an additive
effect of secretin and
CCK on cells of the
pancreas which release
HCO3- and other
digestive enzymes
Chyme
CCK
Stimulation
Inhibition
HCO3, enzymes
Secretin CCK
Figure 41.20c
Secretin
and CCK
Gastric
juices
Stimulation
Inhibition
Herbivore
Omnivore
Key
Incisors
Canines
Premolars
Molars
Figure 41.17
Many carnivores
have large,
expandable
stomachs
Small intestine
Small
intestine
Herbivores and
omnivores have
longer alimentary
canals than
carnivores,
reflecting the
longer time
needed to digest
vegetation
Stomach
Cecum
Carnivore
Colon
(large
intestine)
Herbivore
Mutualistic Adaptations in
Herbivores
Many
herbivores
Reticulum
have
fermentation Esophagus
chambers,
where
mutualistic
microorganism
3
s digest
Omasum
cellulose
2
Abomasum
4
Rumen
Intestine