SCIT 1408 Applied Human Anatomy and Physiology II - Immune System Chapter 21 B

Antibodies
Immunoglobulins
Gamma globulin part of blood proteins
Produced by activated B cells/plasma cells in

response to specific antigen
Five classes of antibodies:
IgM, IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG
Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Classes of Antibodies
IgM
A pentamer; first antibody released
Potent agglutinating agent
Readily fixes and activates complement
IgA (secretory IgA)
Monomer or dimer; in mucus and other secretions
Helps prevent entry of pathogens
Table 21.3
IgD
Monomer attached to the surface of B cells
Functions as a B cell receptor
IgG
Monomer; 7585% of antibodies in plasma
From secondary and late primary responses
Crosses the placental barrier
IgE
Monomer active in some allergies and parasitic

infections
Causes mast cells and basophils to release

histamine
Table 21.3
Basic Antibody Structure
Consists of four looping polypeptide chains linked

together with disulfide bonds
Two identical heavy (H) chains and two identical

light (L) chains
The four chains bound together form an antibody

monomer
Each chain has a variable (V) region at one end

and a constant (C) region at the other
Variable regions of the heavy and light chains

combine to form the antigen-binding site
Antigen-binding
site
Heavy chain
variable region
Heavy chain
constant region
Light chain
variable region
Light chain
constant region
Disulfide bond
Hinge
region
Stem
region
(a)
Figure 21.14a
Antibody Structure
Antibodies responding to different antigens have

different V regions but the C region is the same for
all antibodies in a given class
Antibody Structure
C regions form the stem of the Y-shaped antibody

and:
Determine the class of the antibody
Serve common functions in all antibodies
Dictate the cells and chemicals that the antibody

can bind to
Determine how the antibody class will function in

elimination of antigens
Mechanisms of Antibody Diversity
Plasma cells make over a billion types of

antibodies
However, each cell only contains 100,000 genes

that code for these polypeptides
To code for this many antibodies, somatic

recombination takes place:
Gene segments are shuffled and combined in

different ways by each B cell as it becomes
immunocompetent
Information of the newly assembled genes is

expressed as B cell receptors and as antibodies
Antibody Diversity
Random mixing of gene segments makes unique

antibody genes that:
Code for H and L chains
Account for part of the variability in antibodies
V gene segments, called hypervariable regions,

mutate and increase antibody variation
Plasma cells can switch H chains, making two or

more classes with the same V region
Antibody Targets
Antibodies do not destroy antigen; they inactivate

and tag it for destruction
Form antigen-antibody (immune) complexes
Ab mechanisms:
Neutralization
Agglutination
Precipitation
Complement fixation
Adaptive defenses
Humoral immunity
Antigen
Antigen-antibody
complex
Antibody
Inactivates by
Neutralization
(masks dangerous
parts of bacterial
exotoxins; viruses)
Agglutination
(cell-bound antigens)
Enhances
Fixes and activates

Precipitation
(soluble antigens)
Enhances
Phagocytosis
Complement
Leads to
Inflammation
Cell lysis
Chemotaxis
Histamine
release
Figure 21.15
Monoclonal Antibodies
Commercially prepared antibodies are used:
To provide passive immunity
In research, clinical testing, and cancer treatment
Monoclonal antibodies are pure antibody

preparations
Specific for a single antigenic determinant
Produced from descendents of a single cell
Monoclonal Antibodies
Hybridomas cell hybrids made from a fusion of a

tumor cell and a B cell
Have desirable properties of both parent cells

indefinite proliferation as well as the ability to
produce a single type of antibody
Cell-Mediated Immune Response
Only respond to processed ag usually presented

on cell surface; Must recognize both ag & MHC to
respond
Types:
CD4 cells ; helper T cells (TH)
CD8 cells ; cytotoxic T cells (TC)
Suppressor T cells (TS) or T regulatory
Memory T cells
Many more subtypes that are relatively < numbers
Importance of Cellular Response
T cells are best suited for cell-to-cell interactions,

and target:
Cells infected with viruses, bacteria, or

intracellular parasites
Abnormal or cancerous cells
Cells of infused or transplanted foreign tissue
Adaptive defenses
Cellular immunity
Immature
lymphocyte
Red bone marrow
T cell
receptor
Class II MHC
protein
T cell
receptor
Maturation
CD4
cell
Thymus
Activation
APC
(dendritic cell)
Class I MHC
protein
CD8
cell
Activation
Memory
cells
CD4
APC
(dendritic cell)
CD8
Lymphoid
tissues and
organs
Helper T cells
(or regulatory T cells)
Effector
cells
Blood plasma
Cytotoxic T cells
Figure 21.16
Comparison of Humoral and Cell-Mediated

Response
Antibodies of the humoral response
The simplest ammunition of the immune response
Targets
Bacteria and molecules in extracellular

environments (body secretions, tissue fluid, blood,
and lymph)
Comparison of Humoral and Cell-Mediated

Response
T cells of the cell-mediated response
Recognize and respond only to processed fragments

of antigen displayed on the surface of body cells
Targets
Body cells infected by viruses or bacteria
Abnormal or cancerous cells
Cells of infused or transplanted foreign tissue
Antigen Recognition
Immunocompetent T cells are activated when their

surface receptors bind to a recognized antigen
(nonself)
T cells must simultaneously recognize
Nonself (the antigen)
Self (an MHC protein of a body cell)
MHC Proteins
Two types of MHC proteins are important to T cell

activation
Class I MHC proteins - displayed by all cells except

RBCs
Class II MHC proteins displayed by APCs

(dendritic cells, macrophages and B cells)
Both types are synthesized at the ER and bind to

peptide fragments
Class I MHC Proteins
Bind with fragment of a protein synthesized in the

cell (endogenous antigen)
Endogenous antigen is a self-antigen in a normal

cell; a nonself antigen in an infected or abnormal
cell
Informs cytotoxic T cells of the presence of

microorganisms hiding in cells (cytotoxic T cells
ignore displayed self-antigens)
Cytoplasm of any tissue cell

2 Endogenous antigen
1 Endogenous
peptides enter ER via
antigen is degraded
transport protein.
by protease.
Endogenous antigen
self-protein or foreign
(viral or cancer) protein
Cisternae of
endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)
3 Endogenous
antigen peptide is
loaded onto class
I MHC protein.
4 Loaded MHC protein
migrates in vesicle to
the plasma membrane,
where it displays the
antigenic peptide.
Transport
protein
(ATPase)
Plasma membrane of a tissue cell
Antigenic peptide
Extracellular fluid
(a) Endogenous antigens are processed and displayed on class I MHC of all cells.
Figure 21.17a
Class II MHC Proteins
Bind with fragments of exogenous antigens that

have been engulfed and broken down in a
phagolysosome
Recognized by helper T cells
Cytoplasm of APC
1a
Class II MHC is
synthesized in ER.
Invariant chain
prevents class II
MHC from binding
to peptides in the ER.
Vesicle fuses with

phagolysosome. Invariant
chain is removed, and
antigen is loaded.
2a
Cisternae of
endoplasmic
Phagosome
reticulum (ER)
1b Extracellular
antigen (bacterium)
is phagocytized.
Class II MHC
is exported
from ER in a
vesicle.
2b
Phagosome merges
with lysosome, forming
a phagolysosome;
antigen is degraded.
Extracellular
antigen
Extracellular fluid
Lysosome
Plasma membrane of APC
Vesicle with
loaded MHC
migrates to the
plasma
membrane.
Antigenic peptide
(b) Exogenous antigens are processed and displayed on class II MHC of

antigen-presenting cells (APCs).
Figure 21.17b
T Cell Activation
APCs (most often a dendritic cell) migrate to

lymph nodes and other lymphoid tissues to
present their antigens to T cells
T cell activation is a two-step process

1.
Antigen binding
2.
Co-stimulation
T Cell Activation: Antigen Binding
CD4 and CD8 cells bind to different classes of

MHC proteins (MHC restriction)
CD4 cells bind to antigen linked to class II MHC

proteins of APCs
CD8 cells are activated by antigen fragments

linked to class I MHC of APCs
Dendritic cells are able to obtain other cells

endogenous antigens by
Engulfing dying virus-infected or tumor cells

Importing antigens through temporary gap junctions
with infected cells
Dendritic cells then display the endogenous

antigens on both class I and class II MHCs
TCR that recognizes the nonself-self complex is

linked to multiple intracellular signaling pathways
Other T cell surface proteins are involved in

antigen binding (e.g., CD4 and CD8 help maintain
coupling during antigen recognition)
Antigen binding stimulates the T cell, but costimulation is required before proliferation can
occur
T Cell Activation: Co-Stimulation
Requires T cell binding to other surface receptors on an

APC
Dendritic cells and macrophages produce surface B7

proteins when innate defenses are mobilized
B7 binding with a CD28 receptor on a T cell is a crucial costimulatory signal
Cytokines (interleukin 1 and 2 from APCs or T cells)

trigger proliferation and differentiation of activated T cell
Without co-stimulation, anergy occurs
T cells
Become tolerant to that antigen
Are unable to divide
Do not secrete cytokines
T cells that are activated
Enlarge, proliferate, and form clones
Differentiate and perform functions according to

their T cell class
Primary T cell response peaks within a week
T cell apoptosis occurs between days 7 and 30
Effector activity wanes as the amount of antigen

declines
Benefit of apoptosis: activated T cells are a hazard
Memory T cells remain and mediate secondary

responses
Adaptive defenses
Cellular immunity
1 Dendritic cell
Viral antigen
Dendritic
cell
T cell receptor
(TCR)
Clone
formation
Class lI MHC
protein
displaying
processed
viral antigen
CD4 protein
engulfs an
exogenous antigen,
processes it, and
displays its
fragments on class
II MHC protein.
2 Immunocompetent
CD4 cell recognizes

antigen-MHC
complex. Both TCR
and CD4 protein bind
Immunocom- to antigen-MHC
complex.
petent CD4
T cell
Costimulation
also required
3 CD4 cells are
activated,
proliferate (clone),
and become memory
and effector cells.
Helper T
memory cell
Activated
helper
T cells
Figure 21.18
Cytokines p. 818
Chemicals produced by different cells, including

activated T cells & macrophages, that influence:
Cell development
Differentiation
Immune reponses IL2 stimulates activated T cells

to proliferate; given theraputically to CA pts
Include:
IFN, IL1-IL8, IL10-IL13; MIF, TNF, Perforin,

Lymphotoxin, Inflammatory factors
Cytokines
IL-2 is a key growth factor, acting on cells that

release it and other T cells
Encourages activated T cells to divide rapidly
Used therapeutically to treat melanoma and kidney

cancers
Other cytokines amplify and regulate innate and

adaptive responses
Helper T Cells (TH)
Regulatory cells that play a central role in the

immune response
Once primed by APC presentation of antigen, they:
Chemically or directly stimulate proliferation of

other T cells
Stimulate B cells that have already become bound

to antigen
Without TH, there is no immune response
Helper T Cells
Cause dendritic cells to express co-stimulatory

molecules required for CD8 cell activation
TH cell help in cell-mediated immunity

CD4 protein
Helper T cell
Class II MHC
protein
APC (dendritic cell)
1 Previously
activated TH cell
binds dendritic cell.
2 TH cell stimulates
IL-2
dendritic cell to express

co-stimulatory
molecules (not shown)
needed to activate CD8
cell.
3 Dendritic cell can
Class I
MHC protein
(b)
CD8
protein
CD8 T cell
now activate CD8 cell

with the help of
interleukin 2 secreted
by TH cell.
Figure 21.19b
Helper T Cells
Interact directly with B cells displaying antigen

fragments bound to MHC II receptors
Stimulate B cells to divide more rapidly and begin

antibody formation
B cells may be activated without TH cells by

binding to T cellindependent antigens
Most antigens require TH co-stimulation to activate

B cells
TH cell help in humoral immunity

Activated helper
T cell
1 TH cell binds with the
Helper T cell
CD4 protein
self-nonself complexes of a
B cell that has encountered
its antigen and is displaying
it on MHC II on its surface.
MHC II protein
of B cell displaying
processed antigen
2 TH cell releases
T cell receptor (TCR)
IL- 4 and other

cytokines
B cell (being activated)
(a)
interleukins as
co-stimulatory signals to
complete B cell activation.
Figure 21.19a
Roles of Cytotoxic T(TC) Cells
Directly attack and kill other cells- the only T cell

that directly kills
Activated TC cells circulate in blood and lymph

and lymphoid organs in search of body cells
displaying antigen they recognize
Roles of Cytotoxic T(TC) Cells
Targets
Virus-infected cells
Cells with intracellular bacteria or parasites
Cancer cells
Foreign cells (transfusions or transplants)
Cytotoxic T Cells
Bind to a self-nonself complex
Can destroy all infected or abnormal cells
Cytotoxic T Cells
Lethal hit
Tc cell releases perforins and granzymes by

exocytosis
Perforins create pores through which granzymes

enter the target cell
Granzymes stimulate apoptosis
In some cases, TC cell binds with a Fas receptor on

the target cell, and stimulates apoptosis
Adaptive defenses
Cytotoxic
T cell (TC)
Cellular immunity
1 TC binds tightly to
the target cell when it
identifies foreign antigen
on MHC I proteins.
granzyme molecules from its

granules by exocytosis.
Granule
Perforin
TC cell
membrane
Target
cell
2 TC releases perforin and
Target
cell
membrane
Perforin
pore
Granzymes
5 The TC detaches and
3 Perforin molecules
insert into the target
cell membrane,
polymerize, and form
transmembrane pores
(cylindrical holes)
similar to those
produced by
complement
activation.
4 Granzymes enter the
target cell via the pores.
Once inside, these
proteases degrade
cellular contents,
stimulating apoptosis.
searches for another prey.

(a) A mechanism of target cell killing by T C cells.
Figure 21.20a
Natural Killer Cells
Recognize other signs of abnormality
Lack of class I MHC
Antibody coating a target cell
Different surface marker on stressed cells
Use the same key mechanisms as Tc cells for

killing their target cells
Non-specific (not considered a T cell)
Regulatory T (TReg) Cells
Dampen the immune response:
by direct contact
by inhibitory cytokines
Important in preventing autoimmune reactions
T suppressor cells or Suppressor T cells
Cell-mediated
immunity
Antigen (Ag) intruder
Humoral
immunity
Inhibits
Inhibits
Triggers
Adaptive defenses
Innate defenses
Surface Internal
barriers defenses
Ag-infected
body cell engulfed
by dendritic cell
Becomes
Ag-presenting cell
(APC) presents
self-Ag complex
Activates
Free Ags
may directly
activate B cell
Antigenactivated
B cells
Clone and
give rise to
Activates
Nave
Nave
CD8
CD4
T cells
T cells
Activated to clone
Activated to clone
and give rise to Induce and give rise to
co-stimulation
Memory
cytotoxic T cells
Activated
cytotoxic
T cells
Memory
helper T cells
Activated
helper
T cells
Memory
B cells
Plasma cells
(effector B cells)
Secrete
Cytokines stimulate
Together the nonspecific killers

and cytotoxic T cells mount a
physical attack on the Ag
Nonspecific killers
(macrophages and
NK cells of innate
immunity)
Antibodies (Igs)
Circulating lgs along with
complement mount a chemical
attack on the Ag
Figure 21.21
Fig. 43-16
Humoral (antibody-mediated) immune response
Cell-mediated immune response

Key
Antigen (1st exposure)
Gives rise to
Engulfed by
Antigenpresenting cell
Stimulates
B cell
Helper T cell
Cytotoxic T cell
Memory
Helper T cells
Antigen (2nd exposure)

Plasma cells
Memory B cells
Memory
Cytotoxic T cells
Active
Cytotoxic T cells
Secreted
antibodies
Defend against extracellular pathogens by binding to antigens,
thereby neutralizing pathogens or making them better targets
for phagocytes and complement proteins.
Defend against intracellular pathogens

and cancer by binding to and lysing the
infected cells or cancer cells.
The helper T cells receptors recognize the self-nonself

complexes on the APC
The interaction activates the helper T cells (CD4+)
The helper T cell can then activate cytotoxic T cells
and B cells with the same receptors
Suppressor T cells
Memory T cells
Self protein
displaying T cell
an antigen receptor
Interleukin-2 Cytotoxic
stimulates T cell
cell division
Cell-mediated
immunity
(attack on
infected cells)
Interleukin-2
APC
Helper
T cell
activates
other T cells
and B cells
B cell
Interleukin-1
activates
helper T cell
Humoral
immunity
(secretion of
antibodies by
plasma cells)
Figure 24.13B
Organ Transplants
The four major types of grafts are:
Autografts graft transplanted from one site on

the body to another in the same person
Isografts grafts between identical twins
Allografts transplants between individuals that

are not identical twins, but belong to same species
Xenografts grafts taken from another animal

species
Prevention of Rejection
Tissue rejection inhibited by immunosuppressive

drugs
However, these drugs depress patients immune

system so it cannot fight off foreign agents
GVH
Immunodeficiencies
Congenital/acquired
SCID genetic
< B and T cells
Abnormalities in interleukin receptors
Defective adenosine deaminase (ADA) enzyme
Metabolites lethal to T cells accumulate
Fatal if untreated; treatment is with bone marrow

transplants
Acquired Immunodeficiencies
Hodgkins disease cancer of the lymph nodes

leads to immunodeficiency by depressing lymph
node cells
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)

cripples the immune system by interfering with the
activity of helper T (CD4) cells
Characterized by severe weight loss, night sweats,

and swollen lymph nodes
Opportunistic infections occur, including

pneumocystis pneumonia and Kaposis sarcoma
AIDS
Caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
transmitted via body fluids blood, semen, and
vaginal secretions
HIV enters the body via:
Blood transfusions
Contaminated needles
Intimate sexual contact, including oral sex
HIV:
Destroys TH (CD4) cells
Depresses cell-mediated immunity
AIDS
HIV multiplies in lymph nodes throughout the

asymptomatic period; Ab neg for wks after infect.
Symptoms appear in a few months to 10 years
Attachment
HIVs coat protein (gp120) attaches to the CD4

receptor
A nearby protein (gp41) fuses the virus to the

target cell
AIDS
HIV enters the cell and uses reverse transcriptase

to produce DNA from viral RNA
This DNA (provirus) directs the host cell to make

viral RNA (and proteins), enabling the virus to
reproduce and infect other cells
AIDS
HIV reverse transcriptase is not accurate and

produces frequent transcription errors
This high mutation rate causes resistance to drugs
Treatments include:
Reverse transcriptase inhibitors (AZT)
Protease inhibitors (saquinavir and ritonavir)
New drugs currently being developed that block

HIVs entry to helper T cells
Autoimmune Diseases
Loss of the immune systems ability to distinguish

self from nonself
The body produces autoantibodies and sensitized

TC cells that destroy its own tissues
Examples of Autoimmune Diseases
Multiple sclerosis
Myasthenia gravis
Graves disease
Type I (juvenile) diabetes mellitus
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
Glomerulonephritis
Rheumatoid arthritis
Mechanisms of Autoimmune Diseases

Foreign antigens may resemble self-antigens
1.
Antibodies against the foreign antigen may cross-react

with self-antigen
New self-antigens may appear, generated by
2.
Gene mutations
Changes in self-antigens by hapten attachment or as a

result of infectious damage
Mechanisms of Autoimmune Diseases

3.
Release of novel self-antigens by trauma of a

barrier (e.g., the blood-brain barrier)
Also, some loss of T suppressor or T regulatory

functions
Hypersensitivities
Immune responses to a perceived (otherwise harmless)

threat
Causes tissue damage
Different types are distinguished by
Their time course
Whether antibodies or T cells are involved
Antibodies cause immediate and subacute

hypersensitivities
T cells cause delayed hypersensitivity
Immediate Hypersensitivity
Acute (type I) hypersensitivities (allergies) begin

in seconds after contact with allergen
Initial contact is asymptomatic but sensitizes the

person
Reaction may be local or systemic
The mechanism involves IL-4 secreted by T cells
IL-4 stimulates B cells to produce IgE
IgE binds to mast cells and basophils, resulting in a

flood of histamine release and inducing the
inflammatory response
Acute (type I) hypersensitivities begin in seconds

after contact with allergen- allergies
Anaphylaxis if systemic, life threatening
Release of histamine from basophils & mast cells
Release of inflammatory chemicals
Systemic or local responses
Shock, vasodilation, death;
RX: epinephrine
Anaphylactic Shock
Systemic response to allergen that directly enters the blood
Basophils and mast cells are enlisted throughout the body
Systemic histamine releases may cause
Constriction of bronchioles
Sudden vasodilation and fluid loss from the bloodstream
Hypotensive shock and death
Treatment: epinephrine
Immediate or Type I
Hypersensitivity
Requires sensitization
Sensitization stage
1 Antigen (allergen)
invades body.
IgE mediated
2 Plasma cells
produce large
amounts of class
IgE antibodies
against allergen.
3 IgE antibodies
attach to mast
cells in body tissues
(and to circulating
basophils).
Mast cell with

fixed IgE
antibodies
IgE
Granules
containing
histamine
Subsequent (secondary)
responses
4 More of
same antigen
invades body.
Antigen
5 Antigen combines
with IgE attached
to mast cells (and
basophils), which
triggers degranulation
and release of histamine
(and other chemicals).
Mast cell granules

release contents
after antigen binds
with IgE antibodies
Histamine
6 Histamine causes blood vessels to dilate and become

leaky, which promotes edema; stimulates secretion of
large amounts of mucus; and causes smooth muscles
to contract (if respiratory system is site of antigen
entry, asthma may ensue).
Outpouring of
fluid from
capillaries
Release
of mucus
Constriction of small
respiratory passages
(bronchioles)
Figure 21.21
Subacute Hypersensitivities
Caused by IgM and IgG, and transferred via blood plasma

or serum
Onset is slow (13 hours) after antigen exposure
Duration is long lasting (1015 hours)
Cytotoxic (type II) reactions
Antibodies bind to antigens on specific body cells,

stimulating phagocytosis and complement-mediated lysis of
the cellular antigens
Example: mismatched blood transfusion reaction where

infused blood cells are destroyed
Subacute Hypersensitivities
Immune complex (type III) hypersensitivity
Antigens are widely distributed through the body

or blood
Insoluble antigen-antibody complexes form
Complexes cannot be cleared from a particular area

of the body
Intense inflammation, local cell lysis, and death

may result
Example: systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
Delayed Hypersensitivities (Type IV)
Slow Onset (13 days); Cell mediated
Delayed hypersensitivity, Td, & TC cells
Mediated by Cytokines from activated TC
RX: corticosteroids (Antihistamines no use)
Examples: contact dermatitis as in poison ivy
Developmental Aspects
Immune system stem cells develop in the liver and

spleen by the ninth week
Later, bone marrow becomes the primary source of

stem cells
Lymphocyte development continues in the bone

marrow and thymus system begins to wane
Developmental Aspects
TH2 lymphocytes predominate in the newborn, and

the TH1 system is educated as the person
encounters antigens
Tolerance occurs in the fetus
The immune system is impaired by stress and

depression
With age, the immune system begins to wane

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SCIT 1408 Applied Human Anatomy and Physiology II - Immune System Chapter 21 B

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Antibodies

Gamma globulin part of blood proteins

Produced by activated B cells/plasma cells in

Five classes of antibodies:

IgM, IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

A pentamer; first antibody released

Potent agglutinating agent

Readily fixes and activates complement

IgA (secretory IgA)

Monomer or dimer; in mucus and other secretions

Helps prevent entry of pathogens

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Monomer attached to the surface of B cells

Functions as a B cell receptor

Monomer; 7585% of antibodies in plasma

From secondary and late primary responses

Crosses the placental barrier

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Monomer active in some allergies and parasitic

Causes mast cells and basophils to release

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Basic Antibody Structure

Consists of four looping polypeptide chains linked

Two identical heavy (H) chains and two identical

The four chains bound together form an antibody

Each chain has a variable (V) region at one end

Variable regions of the heavy and light chains

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Antibodies responding to different antigens have

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

C regions form the stem of the Y-shaped antibody

Determine the class of the antibody

Serve common functions in all antibodies

Dictate the cells and chemicals that the antibody

Determine how the antibody class will function in

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Mechanisms of Antibody Diversity

Plasma cells make over a billion types of

However, each cell only contains 100,000 genes

To code for this many antibodies, somatic

Gene segments are shuffled and combined in

Information of the newly assembled genes is

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Random mixing of gene segments makes unique

Code for H and L chains

Account for part of the variability in antibodies

V gene segments, called hypervariable regions,

Plasma cells can switch H chains, making two or

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Antibodies do not destroy antigen; they inactivate

Form antigen-antibody (immune) complexes

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Fixes and activates

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Commercially prepared antibodies are used:

To provide passive immunity

In research, clinical testing, and cancer treatment

Monoclonal antibodies are pure antibody

Specific for a single antigenic determinant

Produced from descendents of a single cell