Chem Energetics1

Chemical Energetics
Created by S. Colgan;
Modified by K. Slater
Resources:
http://lincoln.pps.k12.or.us/lscheffler/Energetics.ppt#269,36,Sta
ndard Enthalpy Changes
IB Topic 5: Energetics
5.1: Exothermic and Endothermic
Reactions
5.1.1 Define the terms exothermic reaction,
endothermic reaction and standard enthalpy
change of reaction
(Ho).
5.1.2 State that combustion and neutralization
are exothermic processes.
5.1.3 Apply the relationship between temperature
change, enthalpy change and the classification of
a reaction as endothermic or exothermic.
5.1.4 Deduce, from an enthalpy level diagram,
the relative stabilities of reactants and products,
and the sign of enthalpy change for the reaction.
Heat and Temperature

Heat is energy that is transferred from one
object to another due to a difference in

temperature
Temperature is a measure of the average
kinetic energy of a body
Heat is always transferred from objects at a
higher temperature to those at a lower
temperature
5.1.1 Define the terms exothermic

reaction, endothermic reaction and
standard enthalpy change of reaction
(Ho).
Exothermic Reaction:
Reaction A process that
releases heat to its surroundings.
Products have less energy than the
reactants
Endothermic Reaction : A process that
absorbs heat from the surroundings.
Products have more energy than the
reactants.
4

(Ho).
Standard Enthalpy Change of Reaction (H): The heat
energy exchanged with the surroundings when a
reaction happens under standard conditions (NOT
STP see below).
Since the enthalpy change for any given reaction
will vary with the conditions, esp. concentration
of chemicals, H are measured under standard
conditions:
pressure = 101.3 kPa

temperature = 25C = 298 K
Concentrations of 1 mol dm-3
The most thermodynamically stable allotrope (which in the
case of carbon is graphite)
Only H can be measured, not H for the initial or

final state of a system.
5

(Ho).
Pseudonyms (other names) for H
Heat of Reaction: Hrxn heat produced in a chemical reaction
Heat of Combustion: Hcomb heat produced by a combustion reaction

Heat of Neutralization: heat produced in a neutralization reaction
(when an acid and base are mixed to get water, pH = 7)
Heat of solution: Hsol heat produced by when something dissolves
Heat of Fusion: Hfus heat produced when something melts
Heat of Vaporization: Hvap heat produced when something

evaporates
Heat of Sublimation: Hsub heat produced when something sublimes
Heat of formation: Hf change in enthalpy that accompanies the

formation of 1 mole of compound from its elements (this has special
uses in chemistry)
6
5.1.2 State that combustion and

neutralization are exothermic
processes.
Combustion
Exothermic reaction
General Combustion Reaction Formula:
Compound (usually hydrocarbon) + O2
CO2 + H2O + energy
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O + 890kJ
H = -890kJ
Neutralization
Exothermic reaction
Acid + Base Salt + Water + energy
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O + 57.3 kJ
H = -57.3kJ
7
5.1.3 Apply the relationship between

temperature change, enthalpy change and
the classification of a reaction as
endothermic or exothermic.
Exothermic
Heat flows out of the
system
Surroundings heat up
Heat change (H) < 0
(negative)
Endothermic
Heat flows into the
system
Surroundings cool down
Heat change (H) > 0
(positive)
C8H18+ 12O2 8CO2 +

9H2O H = -5512 kJ mol-1
H2O(s) H2O(l)
H = +6.01 kJ mol-1
H2 + O2 H2O
H = -286 kJ mol-1
N2 + O2 NO2
H = +33.9 kJ mol-1
8
Exothermic process is any process that gives off heat

transfers thermal energy from the system to the surroundings.
2H2 (g) + O2 (g)
H2O (g)
2H2O (l) + energy

H2O (l) + energy
Endothermic process is any process in which heat has to be

supplied to the system from the surroundings.
energy + 2HgO (s)
energy + H2O (s)
2Hg (l) + O2 (g)

H2O (l)
9
6.2
10
6.5

the relative stabilities of reactants and
products, and the sign of enthalpy change for
the reaction.
Exothermic Reactions
Products more stable than reactants
(lower energy).
H = Hproducts Hreactants
Since the products have less
energy than the reactants, the
H value is negative.
Endothermic Reactions
Products less stable than reactants
(higher energy)
H = Hproducts Hreactants
Since the products have more
energy than the reactants, the
H value is positive.
11
Enthalpy (H) is used to quantify the heat flow into or out of a

system in a process that occurs at constant pressure.
H = H (products) H (reactants)
H = heat given off or absorbed during a reaction at constant pressure
Hproducts < Hreactants

H < 0
Hproducts > Hreactants

H > 0
12
6.4

the relative stabilities of reactants and
products, and the sign of enthalpy change for
the reaction.
13
REVIEW
Endothermic
Exothermic
Definition
Examples (2)
Change in Temperature
H value
Direction of heat flow
Stability of reactants
Stability of products
Bonding
14
REVIEW
Endothermic
Definition
A process that absorbs

heat from the
surroundings
Examples (2)
Exothermic
A process that releases
heat into the
surroundings
Combustion &
Neutralization reactions
Change in
Temperature
Decreases
Increases
H value
Positive
Negative
Direction of heat flow
From surroundings into

system
From system into

surroundings
Stability of reactants
More stable
Less stable
Stability of products
Less stable
More stable
Bonding
Bond breaking
Bond making
15
5.2: Calculation of Enthalpy Changes
5.2.1 Calculate the heat energy change when the

temperature of a pure substance is changed.
5.2.2 Design suitable experimental procedures for
measuring the heat energy changes of reactions.
5.2.3 Calculate the enthalpy change for a reaction
using experimental data on temperature changes,
quantities of reactants and mass of water
5.2.4 Evaluate the results of experiments to
determine enthalpy changes.
16
Factors Affecting Heat Quantities

The amount of heat contained by an object
depends primarily on three factors:

The mass of material
The temperature
The kind of material and its ability to
absorb or retain heat.
17
17
Heat Quantities
The heat required to raise the temperature of 1.00
g of water 1 oC is known as a calorie

Calorie (with a capital C):
C) dietary
measurement of heat. Food has potential
energy stored in the chemical bonds of food.
1 Cal = 1 kcal = 1000 cal
The SI unit for heat is the joule. It is based on the
mechanical energy requirements.
1.00 calorie = 4.184 Joules
18
18
5.2.1 Calculate the heat energy change when

the temperature of a pure substance is
changed.
Heat Energy Change

q = m x c x T
q = heat (joules or calories)
m = mass (g)
c = specific heat (J g-1 oC-1)
The amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 g of a substance 1 oC.
T = change in temperature
19

changed.
How much heat in joules will
be absorbed when 32.0 g
of water is heated from
25.0 oC to 80.0 oC?
q = m x c x T
q=?
m = 32.0 g
c = 4.18 J g-1 oC-1
T = 80.0-25.0 = 55.0 oC
q = 32.0 x 4.18 x 55.0 =
7,360 J
When 435 J of heat is added to 3.4

g of olive oil at 21 oC, the
temperature increases to 85 oC.
What is the specific heat of olive
oil?
q = m x c x T
q = 435 J
m = 3.4 g
c=?
T = 85-21 = 64 oC
435 = 3.4 x c x 64 = 2.0 J g-1 oC-1
20
Heat Transfer Problem 1

Calculate the heat that would be required an aluminum
cooking pan whose mass is 400 grams, from 20 oC to
200oC. The specific heat of aluminum is 0.902 J g -1 oC-1.
Solution
Q = mCT
= (400 g) (0.902 J g-1 oC-1)(200oC 20oC)
= 64,944 J
21
21

changed.
How much heat in joules is
required to raise the
temperature of 250 g of
mercury 52 oC?
A 1.55 g piece of stainless steel

absorbs 141 J of heat when its
temperature increases by 178
oC. What is the specific heat of
the stainless steel?
22

changed.
How much heat in joules is
required to raise the
temperature of 250 g of
mercury 52 oC?
q = m x c x T
q=?
m = 250 g
c = 0.14 J g-1 oC-1 (Table 11.2)
T = 52 oC
q = 250 x 0.14 x 52 = 1800
J
A 1.55 g piece of stainless steel

absorbs 141 J of heat when its
temperature increases by 178 oC.
What is the specific heat of the
stainless steel?
q = m x c x T
q = 141 J
m = 1.55 g
c=?
T = 178 oC
141 = 1.55 x c x 178 = 0.511 J g-1 oC1
23
5.2.2 Design suitable experimental procedures

for measuring the heat energy changes of
reactions.
Calorimeter: Reactions
used to heat up an
external source of
water.
Temperature change of
water, mass of material
and mass of water are
measured.
Use q = m x c x T to
solve for q then find the
heat of reaction in
kJ/mol of reacting
substance.
24
Calorimetry
Calorimetry involves the measurement of
heat changes that occur in chemical

processes or reactions. Determines
the H by measuring temp 's created

from the rxn
The heat change that occurs when a
substance absorbs or releases energy is

really a function of three quantities:
The mass
The temperature change
The heat capacity of the material
25
25
Heat Capacity and Specific Heat
The ability of a substance to absorb or retain heat

varies widely.
The heat capacity depends on the nature of the
material.
The specific heat of a material is the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of
a substance 1 oC (or Kelvin)
26
26
Heat Transfer Problem 2

What is the final temperature when 50 grams of water at
20oC is added to 80 grams water at 60oC? Assume that
the loss of heat to the surroundings is negligible. The
specific heat of water is 4.184 J g-1 oC-1
Solution: Q (Cold) = Q (hot)
Let T = final temperature
mCT= mCT
(50 g) (4.184 J g-1 oC-1)(T- 20oC)

= (80 g) (4.184 J g-1 oC-1)(60oC- T)
(50 g)(T- 20oC) = (80 g)(60oC- T)
50T -1000 = 4800 80T
130T =5800
T = 44.6 oC
27
27

quantities of reactants and mass of water.
Using Thermochemical Equations

Calcium oxide combines with water to produce calcium hydroxide
and heat (exothermic reaction).
CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s) + 65.2 kJ OR
CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s) H = -65.2 kJ

How many kJ of heat are produced when 7.23 g of CaO react?
1)
Balance equation
2)
Moles CaO: 7.23 g/56.01 g/mol = 0.129 mol
3)
Ratio using heat:
x kJ
=
65.2 kJ
8.41 kJ
0.129 CaO
1 CaO
28

Using Thermochemical Equations

Sodium hydrogen carbonate absorbs 129 kJ of energy and
decomposes to sodium carbonate, water, and carbon dioxide
(endothermic reaction).
2NaHCO3(s) + 129 kJ Na2CO3(s) + H2O(g) + CO2(g)

OR
2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + H2O(g) + CO2(g) H = 129 kJ

How many kJ of heat are needed to decompose 2.24 mol
NaHCO3(s)?
1)
Balanced equation
2)
Moles NaHCO3(s) = 2.24 mol
3)
Ratio:
x kJ
=
129 kJ
144 kJ
2.24 NaHCO3(s)
2 mol
29

Using Experimental Data

In a neutralization reaction, 25.0 mL of water containing 0.025 mol
HCl is added to 25.0 mL of water containing 0.025 mol NaOH in
a foam cup calorimeter. At the start, the solutions and the
calorimeter are all at 25.0 oC. During the reaction, the highest
temperature observed is 32.0 oC. Calculate the heat (in kJ)
released during this reaction. Assume the densities of the
solutions are 1.00 g mL-1.
Use q = m x c x T
m = mass of solution = 50.0 mL x 1.00 g mL-1 = 50.0 g
C = 4.18 j g-1 oC-1
T = 32.0 25.0 = 7.0 oC
q = 50.0 g x 4.18 J g-1 oC-1 x 7.0 oC = 1463 J = 1.5 kJ
30
31

Using Thermodynamic Quantities (Standard Heats of Formation)
Heat of reaction can be found by: sum the heats of formation of all
the products sum of heats of formation of all the reactants
Hrxn = Hf products Hf reactants
H f = standard enthalpy of formation. Energy required to form a

compound from its elements.
standard is a term used a lot in chemistry. It usually means that
the values are experimentally determined and compared to an
agreed upon reference value
Since the Hf is given per mole, we must multiply by coefficients
32

Using Thermodynamic Quantities (Standard Heats

of Formation)
Using the table of thermodynamic quantities, calculate the
heat of reaction for 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
Heat of reaction = Hf products Hf of reactants
Heat of products: Hf (SO3) = -395.2 kJ/mol x 2 = -790.4 kJ
Heat of reactants = Hf (SO2) + Hf (O2)
(-296.9 kJ/mol x 2) + (0) = -593.8 KJ
Heat of reaction = -790.4 kJ (-593.8 kJ) = -196.6 kJ
33

N2O4 + 3 CO N2O + 3CO2

Reactants
H f
Products
H f
N2O4
9.7 kJ mol-1
N2O
81 kJ mol-1
CO
-110 kJ mol-1
CO2
-393 kJ mol-1
Hf products = 1(81 kJ mol-1) + 3(-393 kJ mol-1) = -1098 kJ/mol

Hf reactants = 1(-9.7 kJ mol-1)+ 3(-110 kJ mol-1) = -320.3 kJ mol-1
Hf products Hf reactants = (-1098 kJ mol-1) (-320.3 kJ mol-1)
= -778 kJ mol-1
Hrxn = -778 kJ mol-1
Therefore it is exothermic
34

Ca(OH)2(s) + CO2 (g) H2O(g) + CaCO3 (s)

Reactants
H f
Products
H f
Ca(OH)2
-986.1 kJ mol-1
H2O
-241.8 kJ mol-1
CO2
-393.5 kJ mol-1
CaCO3
-1206.9 kJ mol-1
Hf products = 1(-241.8 kJ mol-1) + 1(-1206.9 kJ mol-1) = -1448.7 kJ/mol

Hf reactants = 1(-986.1 kJ mol-1)+ 1(-393.5 kJ mol-1) = -1379.6 kJ mol-1
Hf products Hf reactants = (-1448.7 kJ mol-1) (-1379.6 kJ mol-1)
= -69.1 kJ mol-1
Hrxn = -69.1 kJ mol-1
Therefore it is exothermic
35
5.3 Hesss Law & 5.4 Bond Enthalpies
5.3.1 Determine the enthalpy change of a

reaction that is the sum of two or three reactions
with known enthalpy changes.
5.4.1 Define the term average bond enthalpy
5.4.2 Explain, in terms of average bond
enthalpies, why some reactions are exothermic
and others are endothermic
36

reaction that is the sum of two or three
reactions with known enthalpy changes.
Hesss Law: Reactions can be added together in order to determine
heats of reactions that cant be measured in the lab.
C(diamond) C(graphite)
This reaction is too slow to be measured in the lab. Two reactions can
be used that can be measured in the lab:
a) C(graph) + O2(g) CO2(g)
H = -393.5 kJ
b) C(diam) + O2(g) CO2(g)
H = -395.4 kJ
Since C(graphite) is a product, write equation a) in reverse to give:
c) CO2(g) C(graph) + O2(g) H = 393.5 kJ
Now add equations b) and c) together:
C(diam) + O2(g) + CO2(g) C(graph) + O2(g) + CO2(g)
H = -395.4 kJ + 393.5 kJ = -1.9 kJ
Final equation: C(diamond) C(graphite) H = - 1.9 kJ
37

Given the following thermochemical equations, calculate the heat of
reaction for:
C2H4(g) + H2O(l) C2H5OH(l)
a) C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
b) C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
-1411 kJ
H = -1367 kJ
H =
38

reaction for
a) C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
b) C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
H = -1367 kJ
H = -1411 kJ
Since C2H5OH(l) is a product, write equation a) in reverse order:

c) 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g)
H = 1367 kJ
Add equations b) & c) together, cancelling out substances on opposite
sides of the arrow. Add the heat values to obtain the heat of
reaction.
H = -44 kJ
39

reaction for:
C(s) + 2H2(g) CH4(g)
a) C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
H = -393 kJ
mol-1
b) H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(l)
H = -286 kJ mol-1
c) CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
H = -890 kJ mol-1
40

reaction for:
C(s) + 2H2(g) CH4(g)
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
2(H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(l))
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l))
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
mol-1
CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) CH4(g) + 2O2(g)
C(s) + 2H2(g) CH4(g)
H = -393 kJ
H = 2(-286 kJ mol-1)
H = -572 kJ
H = -890 kJ
H = 890
H = -75 kJ
41
5.4.1 Define the term average bond enthalpy

Enthalpy changes of reactions are the result of bonds breaking
and new bonds being formed.
Breaking bonds requires energy
Forming new bonds releases energy

Bond enthalpy is the energy change required to break 1 mol
of bonds or form 1 mol of bonds between two covalently
bonded atoms in the gaseous state.
Bond enthalpies for unlike atoms will be affected by
surrounding bonds and will be slightly different in
different compounds so average bond enthalpies are
used.
42
Chemical Reactions
In a chemical reaction
Chemical bonds are broken
Atoms are rearranged
New chemical bonds are formed
These processes always involve
energy changes
43
43
5.4.2 Bond Enthalpies

One approach to determining an enthalpy
change for a chemical reaction is to compute

the difference in bond enthalpies between
reactants and products
The energy to required to break a covalent
bond in the gaseous phase is called a bond
enthalpy.
Bond enthalpy tables give the average energy
to break a chemical bond. Actually there are
slight variations depending on the environment
in which the chemical bond is located
44
44
Energy Changes
Breaking chemical bonds requires
energy
Forming new chemical bonds releases
energy
45
45
Bond Enthalpy Table

The average bond enthalpies for several types of
chemical bonds are shown in the table below:
46
46
Bond Enthalpies
Bond enthalpies can be used to calculate the
enthalpy change for a chemical reaction.

Energy is required to break chemical bonds.
Therefore when a chemical bond is broken its
enthalpy change carries a positive sign.
Energy is released when chemical bonds
form. When a chemical bond is formed its
enthalpy change is expressed as a negative
value
By combining the enthalpy required and the
enthalpy released for the breaking and
forming chemical bonds, one can calculate
the enthalpy change for a chemical reaction
47
47
Exothermic and Endothermic

Processes
Exothermic processes release energy

C3H8 (g) + 5 O2 (g) 3 CO2 (g) + 4H2O (g)
+ 2043 kJ
Endothermic processes absorb energy

C(s) + H2O (g) +113 kJ CO(g) + H2 (g)
48
48
Energy Changes in
endothermic and
exothermic
processes
In an
endothermic
reaction there is
more energy
required to break
bonds than is
released when
bonds are
formed.
The opposite is
true in an
exothermic
reaction.
49
49

If the amount of energy required to break the bonds in the
reactants is greater than the amount of energy released when
bonds are formed in the products, the reaction is
endothermic.
average bond enthalpy reactants > average bond enthalpy
products
If the amount of energy required to break the bonds in the
reactants is less than the amount of energy released when
bonds are formed in the products, the reaction is exothermic.
average bond enthalpy reactants < average bond enthalpy
products
50

Use the following average bond enthalpies (kJ mol -1) to
determine the heat of reaction for 3F2 + NH3 3HF +
NF3
F-F = 158; N-H = 388; H-F = 562; N-F = 272
Energy in (kJ mol-1)
3F-F is 3(158) + 3N-H is 3(388) = 1638 kJ
Energy out (kJ mol-1)
3H-F is 3(562) + 3N-F is 3(272) = 2502 kJ
Since Energy in < Energy out, reaction is exothermic
Heat of reaction is -864 kJ mol-1
51

Using the Bond Enthalpy Table, determine the heat of reaction
for:
CO(g) + 2H2(g) CH3OH
52

Using the Bond Enthalpy Table, determine the heat of reaction
for:
CO(g) + 2H2(g) CH3OH
Energy in (kJ)
1CO (triple bond) 1074 + 2H-H is 2(435) = 1944 kJ mol-1
Energy out (kJ)
3C-H is 3(393) + 1C-O is 356 + 1 O-H is 464 = 1999 kJ
mol-1
Since Energy in < Energy out, reaction is exothermic
Heat of reaction is -55 kJ mol-1
53
Bond Enthalpy
Calculations
Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction

N2 + 3 H2 2 NH3
Bonds broken
1
3
N=N:
H-H:
= 945
3(435) = 1305
Total = 2250 kJ
Bonds formed
2x3 = 6 N-H:
6 (390) = - 2340 kJ
Net enthalpy change

= + 2250 - 2340 = - 90 kJ
54
54

In the 1960s NASA considered the relative merits of using
hydrogen and oxygen compared with hydrogen and
fluorine as rocket fuels. Assuming all the reactants and
products are in the gaseous state, use bond enthalpies to
calculate the enthalpy change of reaction (in kJ mol-1 of
product) for both fuels. As mass is more important than
amount in the choice of rocket fuels, which reaction
would give more energy per kilogram of fuel?
Bond enthalpies (kJ mol-1):
H-H: 435; O O: 496; H-O: 464 kJ; F-F: 158; H-F: 562
55
Terms to Know
Endothermic
Exothermic
Temperature
Heat
Average
bond enthalpy
Standard enthalpy of formation
Enthalpy of combustion
Hess Law
Standard conditions
56

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Chemical Energetics

Heat and Temperature

object to another due to a difference in

5.1.1 Define the terms exothermic

5.1.1 Define the terms exothermic

pressure = 101.3 kPa

Only H can be measured, not H for the initial or

5.1.1 Define the terms exothermic

Heat of Reaction: Hrxn heat produced in a chemical reaction

Heat of Combustion: Hcomb heat produced by a combustion reaction

Heat of Fusion: Hfus heat produced when something melts

Heat of Vaporization: Hvap heat produced when something

Heat of formation: Hf change in enthalpy that accompanies the

5.1.2 State that combustion and

5.1.3 Apply the relationship between

C8H18+ 12O2 8CO2 +

Exothermic process is any process that gives off heat

2H2O (l) + energy

Endothermic process is any process in which heat has to be

2Hg (l) + O2 (g)

5.1.4 Deduce, from an enthalpy level diagram,

Enthalpy (H) is used to quantify the heat flow into or out of a

Hproducts < Hreactants

Hproducts > Hreactants

5.1.4 Deduce, from an enthalpy level diagram,

A process that absorbs

Direction of heat flow

From surroundings into

From system into

5.2.1 Calculate the heat energy change when the

Factors Affecting Heat Quantities

depends primarily on three factors:

g of water 1 oC is known as a calorie

5.2.1 Calculate the heat energy change when

Heat Energy Change

5.2.1 Calculate the heat energy change when

When 435 J of heat is added to 3.4

Heat Transfer Problem 1

5.2.1 Calculate the heat energy change when

A 1.55 g piece of stainless steel

5.2.1 Calculate the heat energy change when

A 1.55 g piece of stainless steel

5.2.2 Design suitable experimental procedures

heat changes that occur in chemical

the H by measuring temp 's created

substance absorbs or releases energy is

Heat Capacity and Specific Heat

The ability of a substance to absorb or retain heat

Heat Transfer Problem 2

(50 g) (4.184 J g-1 oC-1)(T- 20oC)

5.2.3 Calculate the enthalpy change for a reaction

Using Thermochemical Equations

CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s) + 65.2 kJ OR

CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s) H = -65.2 kJ

5.2.3 Calculate the enthalpy change for a reaction

Using Thermochemical Equations

2NaHCO3(s) + 129 kJ Na2CO3(s) + H2O(g) + CO2(g)

2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + H2O(g) + CO2(g) H = 129 kJ

5.2.3 Calculate the enthalpy change for a reaction

Using Experimental Data

5.2.3 Calculate the enthalpy change for a reaction

Using Thermodynamic Quantities (Standard Heats of Formation)

Hrxn = Hf products Hf reactants

H f = standard enthalpy of formation. Energy required to form a