Collecting Primary

Data Through
Observation
Presented By:
Rahma Chishtie - 16169
Tayyab Qamar 15962
Shehryar Sheikh - 16955

Observation as a data collection method

Observation involves the systematic observation , recording,

description analysis and interpretation of peoples behaviour
Saunders et al. (2009)

Types of Observation
Participant observation emphasises the discovery of meaning
attached to actions (qualitative)

Structured observation is concerned with frequency of actions

(quantitative)

Participant
Observation

Participant Observation
Where the researcher attempts to participate fully in the lives and
actions of subjects, enabling them to not merely observe what is
happening but also feeling it

It is different from data collection by means of questionnaire, where

you probably will know little of the context in which the respondents
comments are set.

Researcher/Participant Roles Categorization

Researcher takes
part in activity

Researchers
identity is revealed

Participa
nt
As
observer

Complet
e
Participa
nt

Observe
r as
Participa
nt

Complet
e
Observe
r

Researcher
observes activity

Researchers
identity is concealed

Determining Factors
The purpose of your research
The time you have to devote to your research
The degree to which you feel suited to participant
observation
Organizational access
Ethical considerations

Types of Data Generated

Primary Observations
are those where you would note what happened or what was
said at the time. Keeping a diary is a good way of doing this.
Secondary Observations
are statements by observers of what happened or was said.
This necessarily involves those observers interpretations.
Experiential Observations
are those data on your perceptions and feelings as you experience
the process you are researching.

Data Collection & Analysis

Collection
Ask questions

Of informants to clarify situations that you have observed.

Of yourself to clarify situation and the accounts given of the situation.
Descriptive observation

In descriptive observation you may concentrate on observing the physical

setting, the key participants and their activities, particular events and their
sequence and the attendant processes and emotions involved .
Narrative account

The descriptive observation becomes the basis for your writing of a

narrative account
Analysis
Analytic Induction

Threats to Reliability and Validity

Very High on ecological Validity
Observer Bias

Advantages

Disadvantages

It is good at explaining what is going

on
in particular social situations

It can be very time consuming

It heightens the researchers

awareness of
significant social processes

It can pose difficult ethical dilemmas for

the researcher

It is particularly useful for researchers

working within their own organizations

There can be high levels of role

conflict for
the researcher (e.g. colleague versus
researcher)

Some participant observation affords

the
opportunity for the researcher to the
experience for real the emotions of
those who are being researched

The closeness of the researcher to the

situation being observed can lead to
significant observer bias

Virtually all data collected are useful

The participant observer role is a very

demanding one, to which not all
researchers
will be suited

Structured
Observation

Structured Observation
Structured observation(also known as
systemicobservation) is a data collecting method in which
researchers gather data without direct involvement with the
participants (the researchers watch from afar) and the collection
technique isstructuredin a welldefinedand procedural
manner.

Structured observation: Data collection and Analysis

Using coding schedules to collect data

One of the key decisions you will need to make before
undertaking structured observation is whether you use
an off-the-shelf coding schedule or design your own.
This should totally depend on your research questions
and objectives. What follows are two sets of guidelines
for assessing the suitability of existing tailor-made
coding schedules

Structured observation: Data collection and

Analysis
Choosing an off-the-shelf coding schedule:
One of the most frequent uses of established coding schedules in
management and
business is for recording interpersonal interactions in social
situations such as meetings or negotiations. This lends itself to
structured observation particularly well.
Not only will it save you a lot of time, but it will be tried and tested.
Therefore, it is likely to make your results and conclusions more
reliable and valid.
However, we may decide that no off-the-shelf coding schedule is
suitable for your purposes, then in that case, we will need to
develop your own schedule based on the following sets of attributes.

Choosing an alternative coding schedule:

1) Focused
yourself only

Do not observe and record all that is going on. Concern

with what is strictly relevant

2) Unambiguous
interpretation

Therefore requiring the absolute minimum of observer

3) Non-context dependent The observers job is more difficult if the coding of

behaviors is
dependent on the context in which the behavior
occurs. It may be
essential for your research question(s) and
objectives to record
contextual data, but this should be kept to a
minimum
4) Explicitly defined Provide examples for the observer (even if this is you) of
behaviors
that fall into each category and those that do not
5) Exhaustive
behaviours

Ensure that it is always possible to make a coding for those

you wish to observe

6) Mutually exclusive

Ensure that there is no overlap between behavior

Threats to validity and reliability:

The main threats here are ones to reliability. This section deals with three of these,
subject error, time error and observer effects.
1) Subject error:
Subject error may cause your data to be unreliable. You may be concerned with
observing the output of sales administrators as measured by the amount of orders
they process in a day. Subject error may be evident if you chose administrators in
a section that was short-staffed owing to illness. The message here is clear:
choose subjects who in as many respects as possible are normal examples of the
population under study.
2) Time error:
Closely related to the issue of subject error is that of time error. It is
essential that the time at which you conduct the observation does not provide
data that are untypical of the total time period in which you are interested.

Threats to validity and reliability:

3) Observer effect:
One of the most powerful threats to the validity and reliability of
data collected through observation is that of observer effect. This
is quite simply that the process of the observers observation of
behaviour changes the nature of that behaviour owing to the fact
that the subject is conscious of being observed. The simplest way
to overcome this effect is for the observation to take place in
secret. However, this is often not possible even if it were ethically
acceptable.

Advantages

Disadvantages

It can be used by anyone after suitable

training in the use of the measuring instrument.
In addition, structured observation may be
carried out simultaneously in different locations.
This would present the opportunity of
comparison between locations.

The observer must be in the

research setting when the
phenomena under study are
taking
place.

It should yield highly reliable results by virtue

of its replicability.

Research results are limited to

overt action or surface indicators
from which the observer
must make inferences.

Structured observation is capable of more

than simply observing the frequency of events.
It is also possible to record the relationship
between events.

Data are slow and expensive to

collect.

The method allows the collection of data at

the time they occur in their natural setting.
Structured observation secures information
that most participants would ignore because to