Syllabus:: Unit I Spark Ignition Engines

ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines
Syllabus:
Unit I SPARK IGNITION ENGINES
Air-fuel ratio requirements ,

Design of carburettor fuel jet size and venture
size,
Stages of combustion-normal and abnormal
combustion,
Factors affecting knock,
Combustion chambers,
Introduction to thermodynamic analysis of SI
Unit Engine
I
combustion process.
Department of Mechanical Engineering, St. Josephs College of Eng

Syllabus:
Unit II COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINES
Stages of combustion-normal and abnormal

combustion
Factors affecting knock,
Direct and Indirect injection systems,
Combustion chambers,
Turbo charging ,
Introduction to Thermodynamic Analysis of CI
Engine Combustion process.
Unit II

Syllabus:
Unit III ENGINE EXHAUST EMISSION CONTROL
Formation of NOX , HC/CO mechanism ,

Smoke and Particulate emissions,
Green House Effect ,
Methods of controlling emissions ,
Three way catalytic converter and Particulate
Trap,
Emission (HC,CO, NO and NOX , ) measuring
equipments, Smoke and Particulate
measurement,
Unit III
Indian Driving Cycles and emission norms

Syllabus:
Unit IV ALTERNATE FUELS
Alcohols , Vegetable oils and bio-diesel, Bio-gas,

Natural
Gas
Liquefied
Petroleum
Gas
,Hydrogen ,
Properties , Suitability, Engine Modifications,
Performance ,
Combustion and Emission Characteristics of SI
and CI Engines using these alternate fuels.
Unit IV

Syllabus:
Unit V RECENT TRENDS
Homogeneous
Charge
Compression
Ignition
Engine, Lean Burn Engine, Stratified Charge

Engine, Surface Ignition Engine , Four Valve and
Overhead cam Engines,
Electronic Engine Management, Common Rail
Direct Injection Diesel Engine, Gasoline Direct
Injection Engine ,
Data Acquisition System pressure pick up,
charge amplifier PC for Combustion and Heat
Unit V
Carburetion
The process of formation of combustible air-fuel
mixture, by mixing correct amount of fuel and air
in a device called carburetor, before it enters the
cylinder.
engine
Factors
Affecting Carburetion
1. Carburetor Design
has influence
cylinders.
on
distribution
of
air-fuel
mixture
to
2. Ambient Air condition

Ambient pressure and temperature influence the efficiency
of carburetion. Higher ambient temperature increases the
vaporization rate of fuel forming a homogeneous mixture.
3. Fuel Characteristics
Evaporation characteristics (indicated by distillation curve)
is critical for carburetion; presence of volatile HC also is
important for quick evaporation
Unit I
4. Engine Speed and Load
At higher engine speed, the carburetion time is less causing

strain on carburetor to deliver uniform mixture in a short time;
thus provision of venturi has to be such that the carburetion is
done efficiently at higher pressure drops
Higher loads will demand richer mixture and lower load leaner
Types
of Air-Fuel Mixtures
mixtures.
1. Chemically Correct Mixture

Stoichiometric or balanced chemical mixture in which air is
provided to completely burn the fuel; the excess air factor
is unity
2. Rich Mixture
Fuel is in excess of what is required to burn the fuel

completely. The excess air factor is less than unity.
3. Lean Mixture
Air is in excess of what is required to burn the fuel

completely. The excess air factor is greater than unity.
Unit I
Range of Air-Fuel Ratio in SI Engines

9:1 (rich) to 19:1(lean) ; The stoichiometric value
for gasoline is 14:1, The SI engine will not run for
too rich or too lean mixtures.
Mixture Requirements at Different Engine
Conditions
The air fuel ratio affects the power output and
brake specific fuel consumption of the engine as
shown in the Figure1.
Power
Power
Output
(kW)
BSFC
(kg/kWh)
BSFC
A/F
ratio
Unit I
Mixture Requirements at Different Engine

(Contd.)
Conditions
The mixture
corresponding to maximum output
on the curve is called best power A/F mixture,
which is richer than the stoichiometric mixture.
The mixture corresponding to maximum BSFC on
the curve is called best economy mixture, which
is leaner than the stoichiometric mixture.
The actual A/F ratio requirement for an
automative carburetor falls in 3 ranges:
Idling (rich)
Cruising (lean)
High Power (rich)
Unit I
Mixture Requirements
Conditions (Contd.)
Idling
at
Different
Cruisin
g
Engine
Power
4
A/F
Ratio
50
%
100%
Throttle
Opening
Figure 2. A/F Ratio

opening
Unit I
Vs Throttle
Conditions (Contd.)
Idling Range (1-2)
at
Different
Engine
During idling, engine operates at no load and closed throttle.
The engine requires rich mixture for starting at idling.
Rich mixture is required to compensate for the charge dilution

due to exhaust gases from the combustion chamber.
Also, the amount of fresh charge admitted is less due to smaller

throttle opening.
Exhaust gas dilution prevents efficient combustion by reducing

the contact between the fuel and air particles.
Rich mixture improves the contact of fuel and air by providing

efficient combustion at idling conditions.
As the throttle is opened further, the exhaust gas dilution

reduces and the mixture requirement shifts to the leaner side.
Unit I
Conditions (Contd.)
Cruising Range (2-3)
at
Different
Engine
Focus is on fuel economy.
No exhaust gas dilution.
Carburetor has to give best economy mixture i.e.. Lean mixture.
High Power Range (3-4)
As high power is required, additional fuel has to be supplied to

achieve rich mixture in this range.
Rich mixture also prevents overheating by reducing the flame

temperature and cylinder temperature.
Unit I
Principle of Operation of Simple Carburettor
Unit I
The carburettor works onBernoulli's principle: the faster air

moves, the lower itsstatic pressure, and the higher itsdynamic
pressure.
Thethrottle(accelerator) linkage does not directly control the

flow of liquid fuel. Instead, it actuates carburettor mechanisms
which meter the flow of air being pulled into the engine. The
speed of this flow, and therefore its pressure, determines the
amount of fuel drawn into the airstream.
A simple carburetor consists of a float chamber, fuel discharge

nozzle, a metering orifice, a venturi a throttle valve and choke.
The float and needle valve maintain the fuel level
Fuel strainer is used to trap debris from the fuel and prevent
choking of the fuel nozzle. It is removed periodically for cleaning.
During suction stroke air is drawn through the venturi.
Venturi accelerates the air causing a pressure drop.
Unit I
This pressure drop provides vacuum necessary to meter the airfuel mixture to the engine manifold.
Fuel is fed to the fuel discharge jet, the tip of which is located at
the throat of the venturi
Pressure drop is proportional to the throttle opening or load on

the engine.
Throttle valve achieves governing of SI engine by varying the A/F

ratio. It is a butterfly valve located after the venturi tube. When
the load is less, the throttle is in near closed position and if the
load is high throttle is fully opened.
The choke valve is located between the entrance and venturi

throat. It is also of butterfly type. When choke is partly closed, a
large pressure drop occurs at the venturi throat, which provides a
rich mixture by induction of large amount of fuel as required
during idling or high load conditions. Choke valves are spring
loaded to prevent excessive choking and are sometimes
automatically controlled by thermostat.
For
mixture during idling, an idling adjustment is
Unit
I providing rich Department
of Mechanical Engineering, St. Josephs College of Eng
provided. It has an idling passage
and idling port.
The system operates at starting and shuts off when 20% throttle
opening is reached.
Normal venturi depression is not sufficient to provide rich

mixture due to lower throttle opening. But this low pressure
causes fuel rice in idling passage and it is discharged through
idling port downstream of the throttle valve.
The idling air bleed sucks some air for mixing with the idling fuel
and vaporizes the mixture. The additional fuel-air supply makes
the mixture rich for idling.
Simple carburettor has the drawback of providing rich mixture

with increasing throttle opening.
Unit I
Compensating systems in Carburettors
For part load conditions, the carburettor must supply economic

air-fuel ratio mixture. The main metering system will not satisfy
this requirement. The following compensating systems are used
to achieve this:
Air Bleed Jet
Compensating Jet
Emulsion Tube
Back Suction Control Mechanism
Auxiliary Air Valve
Auxiliary Air Port
Altitude Compensating Device
Unit I

Air Bleed Jet
It contains an air bleed to the main

nozzle.
Air flow through the bleed passage
is restricted by orifice.
When engine is not operating the
bleed passage is filled with fuel.
When the engine starts the fuel
from
the
bleed
passage
is
displaced by air flow from the
orifice.
The air and fuel form an emulsion
at the tip of the bleed passage.
This causes faster delivery of fuel
due to low viscosity and fuel
discharged rises.
Thus uniform mixture ratio is
Unitsupplied.
I

Compensating Jet
The purpose of this is to make the

mixture leaner as the throttle
opens progressively.
An
additional
jet
called
compensating jet is provided with
the main jet.
This jet is also connected to the
fuel well and the fuel is metered
through compensating orifice.
As the throttle opening increases
the main jet makes the mixture
richer by adding more fuel.
The compensating jet makes the
mixture leaner proportionately. The
total mixture will make A/F ratio
constant.
the main jet is lean,

UnitWhen
I
Department
of Mechanical Engineering, St. Josephs College of Eng
compensating jet is
rich.

Emulsion Tube
It is also known as submerged jet

device.
Here, the main metering jet is kept
at a level 25 mm below the fuel
level in float chamber.
The jet is called submerged jet. The
jet is placed in a well that has holes
exposed to atmosphere.
When
the
throttle
opening
increases, the holes in the well are
uncovered causing additional fuel
and air to enter the air-fuel stream,
causing the faster A/F mixture
delivery during part load operation.
Unit I

Back Suction Control Mechanism
In this device, the top of the fuel

chamber is connected to air entry
by means of a large vent line fitted
with a control valve.
The second line connects the fuel
float chamber to venturi throat via
a metering orifice.
When the control valve is opened,
the pressure in float chamber is p1
and the throat pressure is p2 which
is lower than p1. This causes the
fuel to flow. When the valve is
closed, there is no difference in
pressure and hence no fuel flow.
Thus the control valve achieves the
desired air fuel ratio during part
Unitload
I operation. Department of Mechanical Engineering, St. Josephs College of Eng

Auxiliary Air Valve
When the engine is not in

operation, the pressure p1 acting
on the valve is ambient. The
pressure p2 acting at the venturi is
negative (vacuum). This pressure
differential lifts the auxiliary valve
against the spring tensile force.
Additional air is thus infused in the
air-fuel mixture preventing rich
mixture during part load operation.
Unit I

Auxiliary Air Port
If the butterfly valve is opened,

additional air passes through this
port, reducing air flow through
venturi. Thus pressure differential
is comparatively smaller. Thus fuel
drawn is reduced to compensate
for loss in density of air at high
altitudes.
Unit I

Altitude Compensation Device
This was used in high altitude car driving and for aircrafts.
At high altitudes, air density decreases and hence engine
power output is affected.
A/F ratio is affected at high altitudes as carburettors are
designed to operate on sea level.
To compensate for the change in air density, fuel flow has to
be reduced from the calibrated value at sea level.
A mixture control system comprising a needle valve, which
restricts fuel flow in proportion to altitude change acts as an
altitude compensating device.
Unit I
Calculation of A/F ratio for a Simple Carburettor
LetZ
be the difference in height between the tip of the nozzle
and fuel level in the float chamber
C1 ,C-2Air velocities at inlet and exit

p1 , p-2 Pressures at inlet and exit
- Air density
Applying Bernoullis Equation across the venturi,

2
C1
p C
p
1 2 2
2
As C1 C2
2
p1 C2
p
Unit I
Calculation of A/F ratio for a Simple Carburettor

C2
2p
Mass flow rate of air through the venturi,
ma Cd AC;
ma Cd A
2p
;
ma Cd A 2 p
Similarly Mass flow rate of fuel,
m f Cd f f A f C f ;
m f Cd f A f 2 f (p f Zg )
A/F ratio is,
ma Cd A
m f Cd f A f
Cd A
2 p
2 f (p f Zg )
Cd f A f
p
f (p f Zg )
Due
to
the
difference
in
level between tip
of jet and fuel
level in chamber
Where , A- area of venturi, Af Area of fuel jet, f density of fuel

Unit I
Combustion in SI Engines
Combustion is the process of oxidation of fuel resulting into

the release of energy equivalent to calorific value of fuel.
Energy released in combustion is in the form of heat.
Combustion process in spark ignition engine has requirement

of the
mixture of fuel and air in right proportion
mechanism for initiation of combustion process and
stabilization and propagation of flame for complete
For complete combustion of every fuel there is chemically
burning
correct fuel-air ratio also called stoichiometric fuel-air ratio.
This fuel air ratio may be rich or lean depending upon the
proportion of fuel and air present in mixture. In SI engine this
fuel air ratio generally varies between 1 : 7 to 1 : 30 with lean
mixture at 1 : 30 and rich mixture at 1 : 7.
Stoichiometric fuel-air ratio is around 1 : 14 to 1 : 15 for
hydrocarbon fuel. The extreme values of fuel-air ratio
permissible in SI engine on both rich and lean ends put limits
as lower ignition limit and upper ignition limit.
Unit I
Combustion in SI Engines
Varying fuel-air ratio is required in SI engine due to varying

loads on engine between no load to full load on engine. The
ratio of actual fuel-air ratio to stoichiometic fuel-air ratio is
given by equivalence ratio or relative fuel-air ratio.
Appropriate fuel-air ratio is maintained in SI engines through
carburettor (the fuel metering system).
Unit I
Stages of Combustion in SI Engines
Unit I
Combustion in SI engine may be described to be occurring in

following significant phase:
(i) preparation phase
() After compression of fuel-air mixture in cylinder the high
temperature spark is delivered by spark plug in the compressed
fuel-air mixture. Temperature at the tip of spark plug electrode
may go even more than 10,000C at the time of release of
spark.
() Sparkles released have sufficiently high temperature to initiate
the combustion of fuel. For complete combustion of fuel mere
initiation of combustion does not serve the purpose instead a
sustainable combustion process is required.
() After setting up of combustion, a sustainable flame front or
flame nuclei is needed so that it proceeds across the combustion
space to ensure complete combustion. Thus, this phase in which
spark is first released followed by setting up of sustainable
flame front is called preparation phase and may consume
around 10 of crank angle rotation.
Unit I
Crank angle rotation consumed in preparation phase depends

upon the speed of engine, constructional feature of cylinder,
piston, location of spark plug, strength of spark, characteristics of
fuel, fuel-air ratio etc.
Preparation phase is shown to occur from a to b with small or

negligible pressure rise as initially rate of burning is very small.
(ii) Flame Propagation Phase

() After sustainable combustion flame is set up, then the flame
nuclei get scattered due to excessive turbulence in combustion
space causing pressure to rise from b to c.
() This phase of combustion depends upon the turbulence inside
cylinder, strength of combustion nuclei, fuel-air ratio, strength of
spark, cylinder geometry, fuel properties etc.
() This phase of combustion is called as flame propagation phase
and is accompanied by the excessive pressure rise. Flame
propagation phase should also be as small as possible.
Unit I

(iii) After Burning Phase
() After the maximum amount of fuel-air mixture is burnt, the
residual gets burnt after the piston has moved across the TDC.
() This last phase is termed as after burning phase and occurs
during the expansion stroke.
() Hence, it can be summarised that the complete combustion in SI
engine occurs in three distinct zones i.e. preparation phase, flame
propagation phase and after burning phase.
() In order to have complete combustion in smallest possible time
the flame propagation phase and preparation phase should be
shortened.
() Out of total distance travelled in combustion space in first phase
i.e. Preparation phase about 10% of combustion space length is
covered in about 2030% of total time for combustion.
Unit I
Flame propagation phase is spread in about 80% of combustion

space length and is covered in 6070% of total time of
combustion.
After burning occurs in less than 10% of combustion space in less
than 10% of total combustion time.
Abnormal Combustion
Combustion may also sometimes occur abnormally. Abnormal

combustion is said to occur when combustion begins inside the
cylinder on its own before the stipulated time for it.
This abnormal combustion may be due to pre-ignition (i.e. ignition
of fuel even before spark plug ignites it) or auto-ignition (i.e.
Ignition of fuel due to hot spots in the combustion space like valve
seats, spark plug) and results in uncontrolled pressure rise.
Abnormal combustion is also termed as detonation or knocking
and can be felt by jerky operation of engine, excessive noise,
reduced power output etc
Unit I
Factors affecting knock
Fuel
A low self ignition temperature fuel promotes knock.
Induction pressure
Increase of pressure decreases SIT and increases induction time; tendency
of knock increases. Eg. At full throttle knock tends to occur more.
Engine Speed
Low engine speed will give low turbulence and low flame velocity and hence
knock tendency is more.
Ignition Timing
Advancing ignition timing increases peak pressure and promotes knock.
Compression Ratio
High compression ratio increases cylinder pressures and increases the
tendency for knock.
Combustion Chamber Design
Poor design results in long flame path, low turbulence and insufficient
cooling all of which increase knock tendency.
Cylinder Cooling
Poor cylinder cooling increases the temperature and hence the chances of
knock temperature fuel promotes knock.
Unit I
Combustion Chambers
Unit I
THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF SI ENGINE

COMBUSTION
Burned and Unburned Mixture States
Because combustion occurs through a flame propagation

process, the changes in
state and the motion of the unburned and burned gas are much
more complex
than the ideal cycle analysis.
The gas pressure, temperature and density changes as a result
of changes in volume due to piston motion.
During combustion, the cylinder pressure increases due to the
release of the fuel's
chemical energy.
As each element of fuel-air mixture burns, its density decreases
by about a factor of four.
This combustion-produced gas expansion compresses the
unburned mixture ahead of the flame and displaces it toward
the combustion chamber walls.
The
combustion-produced
gas expansion also compresses those
Unit
I
parts of the charge which have already burned, and displaces

COMBUSTION
During the combustion process, the unburned gas elements
move away from the spark plug; following combustion,
individual gas elements move back toward the spark plug.
Further, elements of the unburned mixture which burn at
different times have different pressures and temperatures just
prior to combustion, and therefore end up at different states
after combustion.
The thermodynamic state and composition of the burned gas is,
therefore, non-uniform.
A first law analysis of the spark-ignition engine combustion
process enables us to
quantify these gas states.
Work transfer occurs between the cylinder gases and the piston
(to the gas before TC; to the piston after TC).
Unit I

COMBUSTION
Heat transfer occurs to the chamber walls, primarily from the
burned gases.
At the temperatures and pressures typical of spark-ignition
engines it is a reasonable approximation to assume that the
volume of the reaction zone where combustion is actually
occurring is a negligible fraction of the chamber volume even
though the thickness of-the turbulent flame may not be
negligible compared with the chamber dimensions.
With normal engine operation, at any point in time or crank
angle, the pressure throughout the cylinder is close to uniform.
The conditions in the burned and unburned gas are then
determined by conservation of mass :
Unit I

COMBUSTION
The conservation of energy:
where V is the cylinder volume, m is the mass of the cylinder
contents, v is the specific volume, xb is the mass fraction
burned, Uo is the internal energy of the cylinder contents
at some reference point 0, u is the specific internal energy,
W is the work done on the piston, and Q is the heat transfer to
the walls. The subscripts u and b denote unburned and
burned gas properties, respectively.
The work and heat transfers are:
Where
walls.
Unit I
is the instantaneous heat-transfer rate to the chamber

COMBUSTION
Useful results can be obtained by assuming that the burned and
unburned gases are different ideal gases, each with constant
specific heats. i.e.
Combining these eqns.
Unit I

COMBUSTION
The above equations may be solved to obtain
If we now assume the unburned gas is initially uniform and

undergoes isentropic compression, then
Unit I

Syllabus:: Unit I Spark Ignition Engines

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ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

Air-fuel ratio requirements ,

Department of Mechanical Engineering, St. Josephs College of Eng

ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

Stages of combustion-normal and abnormal

Department of Mechanical Engineering, St. Josephs College of Eng

ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

Formation of NOX , HC/CO mechanism ,

Department of Mechanical Engineering, St. Josephs College of Eng

Indian Driving Cycles and emission norms

ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

Alcohols , Vegetable oils and bio-diesel, Bio-gas,

Department of Mechanical Engineering, St. Josephs College of Eng

ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

Engine, Lean Burn Engine, Stratified Charge

Department of Mechanical Engineering, St. Josephs College of Eng

ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

2. Ambient Air condition

Department of Mechanical Engineering, St. Josephs College of Eng

ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

4. Engine Speed and Load

At higher engine speed, the carburetion time is less causing

1. Chemically Correct Mixture

Fuel is in excess of what is required to burn the fuel

Air is in excess of what is required to burn the fuel

Department of Mechanical Engineering, St. Josephs College of Eng

ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

Range of Air-Fuel Ratio in SI Engines

Department of Mechanical Engineering, St. Josephs College of Eng

ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

Mixture Requirements at Different Engine

Department of Mechanical Engineering, St. Josephs College of Eng

ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

Figure 2. A/F Ratio

Department of Mechanical Engineering, St. Josephs College of Eng

ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

During idling, engine operates at no load and closed throttle.

The engine requires rich mixture for starting at idling.

Rich mixture is required to compensate for the charge dilution

Also, the amount of fresh charge admitted is less due to smaller

Exhaust gas dilution prevents efficient combustion by reducing

Rich mixture improves the contact of fuel and air by providing

As the throttle is opened further, the exhaust gas dilution

Department of Mechanical Engineering, St. Josephs College of Eng

ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

Focus is on fuel economy.

No exhaust gas dilution.

Carburetor has to give best economy mixture i.e.. Lean mixture.

High Power Range (3-4)

As high power is required, additional fuel has to be supplied to

Rich mixture also prevents overheating by reducing the flame

Department of Mechanical Engineering, St. Josephs College of Eng

ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

Principle of Operation of Simple Carburettor

Department of Mechanical Engineering, St. Josephs College of Eng

ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines

Principle of Operation of Simple Carburettor

The carburettor works onBernoulli's principle: the faster air

Thethrottle(accelerator) linkage does not directly control the

A simple carburetor consists of a float chamber, fuel discharge

The float and needle valve maintain the fuel level

During suction stroke air is drawn through the venturi.