Virtue Ethics
Aristotle’s focus is not so
Utilitarian and Kantian
views focus on actions, and
claim the primary purpose
of moral philosophy is to
produce a theory and
method that will enable us
to distinguish the morally
obligatory or permissible
actions from impermissible
actions. They look for
something like algorithms.
much upon what we do,
but who we are. He would
point out that both Kant
and Mill admit that
successful use of their methods
or algorithms hinges upon the
existence of people who have
certain character traits,
which will help them:
 Virtue Ethics

Recognize the morally correct course of action or duty.

and
Follow through in taking the correct course, or doing what duty requires.
 Virtue Ethics

.In
In order to recognize
the correct course of
action, Utilitarians
argue one needs
sympathy, as well as an
ability to temper the
sympathy with
impartiality. Why are
sympathy and
impartiality crucial to
utilitarians? Are these
conflicting character
traits?
 Virtue Ethics
In order to recognize
duty, Kant realizes we
will need fortitude to
look past immediate
costs and benefits, and
more toward long-term
stabilization of
conditions that allow
us all to exercise our
reason in freedom and
flourish as a
commonwealth of
rational beings, this
long term stabilization
and respect of
autonomy being our
duty
 Virtue Ethics
The person of good will must be
able to discern his duty, and act
only from the motive of respect
for the duty. Consider the lying
promise case again. Our man
must be able to see that the long-
term repercussions of lying are
profoundly disturbing to the
viability of a commonwealth of
persons, and he must see lies as
violations of the absolute value of
.
autonomy. To do this, he must be
able to see things from the point
of view of the deceived recipient
of his lying promise. This takes
some effort considering his (and
our) natural inclination is to see
it from his standpoint. So, he
needs empathetic abilities, a
character trait.

In
In short,
short, we
we need to be able to put ourselves in the place of
of other
other rational
rational
agents
agents so
so that
that we
we can
can get
get aa good
good idea
idea of
of what
what respect
respect for
for autonomy
autonomy entails.
entails.
 Virtue Ethics

Both
Both views
views admit
admit that
that honest
honest and
and conscientious
conscientious efforts
efforts must
must be
be made
made not
not only
only
in
in applying
applying the
the methods,
methods, but
but also
also acting
acting upon
upon their
their ‘recommendations.’
‘recommendations.’
Virtue Ethics

Both camps realize that it is better that people

of character exist, the better to bring about
the best state of affairs, through doing the
right things. Kant and the Utilitarians offer
accounts that allow us to figure out what the ‘right
things’ are. However, one may know what is right,
yet fail to act, because of a character trait.
For example: It is less likely that the extremely
selfish person will carry out the right course if it
does not benefit him. So, of equal importance to the
project of moral development are two components:
character and theory. Kant and Mill give us some
useful theory. Aristotle concerns himself with
development of character. Consider the self-
interested motivations we all have:
 Virtue Ethics
Fred owns a drug store fountain
franchise..

And he’s a bit self-interested when it comes to motivation:

Fred offers superior malts to his customers because he fears audits and
inspections from higher-ups.
What will Fred do if audits and inspections are indefinitely halted?
Fred gives to the needy because he craves praise.
What will Fred do if nobody notices or cares that he gives?
Fred tells the truth out of fear of divine retribution for failing to do so,
and in hope of divine reward for doing so.
What will Fred do if he loses faith in God?

Aside
Aside fromfrom these
these external
external motivations,
motivations, the
the moral
moral facts
facts remain.
remain. There
There are
are people
people who
who trust
trust Fred
Fred will
will give
give them
them what
what they
they
pay for, there are people who are
pay for, there are people who are in need,in need , and the practice of truth telling is something that generally benefits
need and the practice of truth telling is something that generally benefits us all, us all,
while
while respecting
respecting usus as
as rational
rational beings.
beings. So
So these
these things
things should
should be be done.
done.
IfIf Fred
Fred does
does these
these things
things for
for self-interested
self-interested reasons,
reasons, and
and these
these reasons
reasons are
are removed,
removed, itit is
is more
more likely
likely he
he will
will choose
choose to to
forgo these things, if he can do so with impunity. (Ring
forgo these things, if he can do so with impunity. (Ring of Gyges)of Gyges)
 Virtue Ethics

This raises an obvious two-part question:

•What is character?
and
•How can we ensure that there are people of character who can,
for example, overcome their natural self-interest when it is
needed?

Aristotelian Virtue Ethics is unique in that its main goal is to

answer these questions.
 Virtue Ethics
What is Character?

What? That’s it? Character is the

Not exactly exercise of
informative. human virtue.
What is human
virtue?

Student:
Teacher:
Alexander
Aristotle,
the Great,
holding
wondering
forth with a
about this
student.
teacher
hired by
dad (King
Phillip of
Macedon.)
“Maybe
dear old
dad
wasted his
money on
this guy.”
 Virtue Ethics
What is Human Virtue?

All right, a bit more content. An improvement: Human virtue is a disposition to

Virtue is a disposition to choose correctly from choose acts or have feelings that
a range of acts and have appropriate emotions, follow a mean relative to our
and it is situationally dependent. situation.

I still don’t
know if he’s
worth the
drachmas!
Virtue Ethics
What is Human Virtue?

Human virtue is a disposition to choose the appropriate mean from a range acts, or the appropriate (or mean)
emotional reaction, and it is situationally dependent.

Concerning acts, this does not sound too different from other
theories, if only because it’s a bit vague and ill-defined.
But, Aristotle’s emphasis on dispositions and emotions is different.
Can we control dispositions or character traits, or are we fated by
biology to have (or not have) emotions that follow the mean?
How is a “disposition” related to choice, if at all?
Finally, what is this “mean relative to our situation”?
 Virtue Ethics
What is Human Virtue?

Dispositions
•A disposition is a set behavior pattern. To some extent we are born with natural
variations in these.

•We can exercise control over our dispositions.

•We can form or modify dispositions by conscious efforts to control reactions over
extended periods of time. This is done by exercising those efforts in numerous
instances of similar circumstances. Eventually, habits or dispositions will crystallize.

The •In general, a mean state is one that avoids the extremes found within the range of
Mean naturally occurring actions or emotions that are found in a given sort of situation.

•It is not necessarily a typical or a median response. Sometimes the mean is more
similar to one extreme than it is to another. (Example: Courage is more like rashness
than cowardliness)
 Virtue Ethics
What is Human Virtue?

The
Mean

A simple example: Someone steals your lunch. The range of emotional

responses varies from

frothing rage,

to acquiescence.

The mean is somewhere between these, and is appropriate to the circumstance.

•What counts as “appropriate”?

Aristotle says, ‘Choosing acts or having feelings directed toward the

right person or persons, at the right time, to the right extent, with
the right object in mind, and in the right way.’
 Virtue Ethics
What is Human Virtue?

The ‘Right’ and Reason

What does he mean by “right” here?

How determine right person, right extent, right time, right way, and
right object?

Application of reason to the situation will reliably determine these

things.

Why this emphasis on reason? (Well, why, besides the fact that Aristotle was a
philosopher?)
The answer has to do with the notion of excellence.. A quick aside, explaining
Aristotle’s basic world-view with regard to excellence..
 Virtue Ethics
What is Human Virtue?

Man’s Nature: Reason, Society

and Virtue

Aristotle’s view of every species in nature is that it has an end for which it exists. Humans are no
different. Like other animals human purpose is to function or live in a way that most exemplifies or
uses man’s unique characteristics, what Aristotle calls “specific excellences.” (An analogy might help
here. A cheetah’s function is partially to live and procreate, as do other organisms, but it is also
especially well suited to run swiftly, capture prey, etc. This we can easily see by observing the cheetah’s
physique, and behavior. When cheetahs have room to run, prey to chase, kill and consume, they are
able to exemplify their specific excellence or ἀρετή.) Each animal species has a specific excellence,
which, if exercised by members of the species, in appropriate settings, either brings about or
constitutes eudaimonia, flourishing or happiness for those individuals. Analogous to the cheetah’s
sleek muscular form, man obviously has a well developed faculty of reason, and is unique in this.
Rationality is something all the ethical schools not only point out as uniquely human, but they also rely
on its power of discernment. Man is also obviously a social animal, as are ants, bees, or wolves.
Sociality gives rise to moral dilemmas, just as obviously. Exercise of our specific excellence then
essentially involves exercise of reason with, and with regard to interests of, individuals within the
human social setting. So, it follows for Aristotle that man, as a rational and social animal will
necessarily attain happiness or eudaimonia if he exercises reason in his πόλεις or society. Using our
human ability to reason in this context is the exercise of humanity’s specific excellence. It is human
arête. The specifically human way of life involves application of reason to practical matters (ethics,
politics and technology) as well as theoretical matters (philosophy and science), which latter Aristotle
(not surprisingly for a philosopher), holds in high esteem. Key notion: to exercise reason in a way that
does not respect human society is not to exercise human excellence, but a perversion.
 Virtue Ethics
What is Human Virtue?

Virtue and Character Formation

So, exercise of reason is reliable in finding the mean reaction, or

otherwise put, the reaction that nails it with regard to the right
person, extent, time, mode and object of response.

The project of character formation has as its end, the formation of a

disposition to behave in this way, even in circumstances where
rational deliberation is not possible.

One must be able to rationally justify the reactions if called upon to

do so, but one need not be reasoning as one reacts, if one has the
requisite character traits. Does Aristotle give us some examples of
such appropriate-to-circumstance rationally justifiable reactions?
Virtue Ethics
What is Human Virtue?

Some Virtues

Aristotle gives
+ Mean State - many examples
______________________________________________________________________________________ of ranges of
reactions which
Emotional Responses include mean
states between
Feelings inspired by Danger extremes. Here
(fear or confidence) are three. Note:
his examples
are either
Excess of Fear Appropriate amount of Fear Deficiency of Fear emotional
Deficiency of Confidence Appropriate amount of Confidence Excess of Confidence responses to
Cowardly Courageous Rash/Foolhardy situations, or
actions taken in
Feelings caused by slights, injustices, or wrongs those situations.
(anger or indignation) Many of the
situations he
presents are
Excess of anger Appropriate anger Deficiency of anger
social. This is
or indignation or indignation or indignation no accident.
Irascibility Gentleness (?) Poor spiritedness (?) Aristotle sees
Pushover, Wimpiness us as essentially
Actions social and
essentially
The giving of money rational.

Excess of giving Appropriate Giving Deficiency of Giving

Vulgarity Magnificence (?) Shabbiness( ?)
Miserly, Scrooge-like
Prodigality Liberality Illiberality (?)
Stinginess
(?
?) = can we find a better label here?
 Virtue Ethics
Human virtue is a disposition to What is Human Virtue?
choose correctly from a range of acts
and have appropriate emotions, and
it is situationally dependent.

+ Mean State -
Some Virtues ______________________________________________________________________________________

Emotional Responses

Feelings inspired by Danger

(fear or confidence)

Excess of Fear Appropriate amount of Fear Deficiency of Fear

Deficiency of Confidence Appropriate amount of Confidence Excess of Confidence
Cowardly Courageous Rash/Foolhardy

Feelings caused by slights, injustices, or wrongs

(anger or indignation)

Excess of anger Appropriate anger Deficiency of anger

or indignation or indignation or indignation
Irascibility Gentleness (?) Poor spiritedness (?)
Pushover, Wimpiness
Actions

The giving of money

Excess of giving Appropriate Giving Deficiency of Giving

Vulgarity Magnificence (?) Shabbiness( ?)
Miserly, Scrooge-like
Prodigality Liberality Illiberality (?)
Stinginess
(?
?) = can we find better labels here?
 Virtue Ethics
Human virtue is a disposition to What is Human Virtue?
choose correctly from a range of acts
and have appropriate emotions, and
it is situationally dependent.
+ Mean State -
______________________________________________________________________________________

Emotional Responses

Feelings inspired by Danger

(fear or confidence)

Excess of Fear Appropriate amount of Fear Deficiency of Fear

Deficiency of Confidence Appropriate amount of Confidence Excess of Confidence
Cowardly Courageous Rash/Foolhardy

Feelings caused by slights, injustices, or wrongs

(anger or indignation)

Excess of anger Appropriate anger Deficiency of anger

or indignation or indignation or indignation
Irascibility Gentleness (?) Poor spiritedness (?)
Pushover, Wimpiness
Actions

Philosophers! The giving of money

Sheesh! Excess of giving

Vulgarity
Appropriate Giving
Magnificence (?)
Deficiency of Giving
Shabbiness( ?)
Miserly, Scrooge-like
Prodigality Liberality Illiberality (?)
Stinginess
(?
?) = can we find better labels here?

Well, yes and

But, if the person of character is a no..
person who has a disposition to act
or emotionally respond as the
rational person would, by finding the
mean, then aren’t you simply
claiming that we should teach
people to use their reason and apply
some method or algorithm? If so,
then you really are no different than
Kant or Mill. Right?
 Virtue Ethics
Human virtue is a disposition to What is Human Virtue?
choose correctly from a range of acts
and have appropriate emotions, and
it is situationally dependent.

Why No? A disposition is like a habit. It’s a trait relatively impervious to change. We do characterize the
mean with reference to the judgment of fully rational agents (‘men of σωφροσύνη or moral wisdom.’)
However, virtuous character because it is a disposition, is to a substantial extent, something that should be
formed by extra-rational means, even if the ultimate goal of those means is to eventually put adult
individuals in position to recognize the rationality of the mean states. The most crucial period requisite for
successful formation of dispositions is early in life, when people are not fully capable of the sophisticated
reasoning necessary to find the mean. Dispositions to act according to mean states must be formed by
various non-rational means, familiar to parents and teachers. Adults typically can find the mean. That is why
they can be trusted with this responsibility. We cannot expect people to reason on every occasion, nor can
we expect reason alone to be a strong motivator on every occasion. Habits take care of both of these
contingencies!
Why Yes? Ultimately, we want
people to use reason in their
day-to-day life as much as
possible.
 Virtue Ethics
Human virtue is a disposition to What is Human Virtue?
choose correctly from a range of acts
and have appropriate emotions, and
it is situationally dependent.

Ultimately, we do want people to recognize the wisdom behind the practices. First, though, we need to
habituate good behavior. It is a fact of life that circumstances sometimes do not allow for careful
application of reason. If dispositions to act as a rational person would already exist in a person, then
even when pressed by circumstances or necessity, that person will act virtuously in those
circumstances. For, habituation to similar circumstances encountered in the past will trigger the
appropriate response.
 Virtue Ethics
Human virtue is a disposition to What is Human Virtue?
choose correctly from a range of acts
and have appropriate emotions, and
it is situationally dependent.

Well, we already do
So, how do we go about this to some extent..
inculcating these good habits? I have no amazing
How do we create the character new things to
traits, if not by directly reasoning recommend, but
with kids? some common
sense things that
humans have found
out through trial and
error over our long
history.
 Virtue Ethics
Society must inculcate virtuous What is Human Virtue?
behavior and appropriate emotional
expression by example and
education.
•We use each of the following,
adding succeeding methods as we
go, and never entirely abandoning
any one of these approaches.
At young ages, we have to rely on
external inducements to virtuous
behavior. These will habituate
children to behave in line with
virtue. Rewards and punishments
of various forms should be used.
 Virtue Ethics
Society must inculcate virtuous What is Human Virtue?
behavior and appropriate emotional
expression by example and
education.
•We use each of the following,
adding succeeding methods as we
go, and never entirely abandoning
any one of these approaches.
As children age, we supplement,
providing examples of moral
This is why I had achievement and failure.
so much trouble
with traditional Biography and fiction can be used
Greek myth. It too
often provides to this effect, presenting virtuous
poor examples. I models (people that find the mean,
mean, Achilles.
Stodgy and Censorious Really! He was or act in accord with it) and models
old Plato
definitely dialed that have departed from the mean
high on the rage
o’ meter. Led to (tragedy).
his best friend’s
death. Not such a Both sorts of examples help teach
great example for
the kiddies.
and inculcate virtue.

Achilles losing his cool

 Virtue Ethics
Society must inculcate virtuous What is Human Virtue?
behavior and appropriate emotional
expression by example and
education.
•We use each of the following,
adding succeeding methods as we
go, and never entirely abandoning
any one of these approaches.
As youth mature, we should present
them with opportunity to
experience the ‘inner workings’ of
the virtuous way, the reasoned
approach to moral matters. We
present or allow situations to which
they must respond. We do not
interfere.

In preparation, we discuss situations that will arise in their individual lives that
call for such reflection. We encourage them in the use of reason by use of questions
revolving around the issues of right person, right extent, right object, right time,
and right way. This will give them practical experience in the actual exercise of
reason, when we cut them loose (or when they lose us, as will eventually happen.
Death comes to us all)
 Virtue Ethics
Society must inculcate virtuous What is Human Virtue?
behavior and appropriate emotional
expression by example and
education.
•We use each of the following,
adding succeeding methods as we
go, and never entirely abandoning
any one of these approaches.

They will begin to see why the right courses of action and emotional responses are
right. They will see the wisdom behind efforts to create the set of dispositions
Aristotle describes. This recognition will cement the habits inculcated earlier by
inducements and examples.
 Virtue Ethics
Society must inculcate virtuous What is Human Virtue?
behavior and appropriate emotional
expression by example and
education.
•We use each of the following,
adding succeeding methods as we
go, and never entirely abandoning
any one of these approaches.

We must encourage conscious applications of reason by young adults. As with all

other skills, only practice will habituate people to virtuous ways. Practice also
makes for an often-effortless expertise in moral matters. This serves us well when
circumstances do not allow for lengthy reflection. Society should make use of all
of these sources of character development. The family is vital in this endeavor.
Also, we should not forget that adults can profit from inducements and exemplars
just as much as children.
 Virtue Ethics

How does this relate to other ethical views, like Mill’s

Utilitarianism or Kant’s Deontological theory?

In a straightforward way: The virtuous person,

when asking if he is responding to the right person,
at the right time, to the right extent, and in the right
way, with the right object in mind, will most likely
find himself asking the sorts of questions the Mill
and Kant ask us to consider.
So, we can see Aristotle’s view not so much as a
competitor for these theories, but as complement to
them, a way to unify them into one account of what
morality deals with. Morality deals not only with
action, but with our very being, and the two are
And now, for a Silly closely connected.
example.., and then a more serious one..

But first, the silly:

 Virtue Ethics

Aristotle is in his car with his son, Ari Junior. Plato cuts
him off, and otherwise drives recklessly. Reckless Plato
ends up parking next to Aristotle at his destination. A
short time has passed. Aristotle is angry, his pulse is
up, and he feels impelled to do something. How should
Aristotle react? What should he do?
 Virtue Ethics

What is the emotional reaction here?

Anger wells up.
Is it appropriate?
Yes. Plato endangered Ari and his son.
What is the appropriate action for
Aristotle? Aristotle asks:
Virtue Ethics

Aristotle asks:

The ‘Right’ Questions

To whom should the anger be

directed? Who is the right person?

Reckless Plato. Don’t take it out on Ari Jr.

Virtue Ethics

Aristotle asks:

The ‘Right’ Questions

When is the right time to deal with

this?

Now, rather than later. ‘Later’ isn’t really

open to you anyway. Plato will not be
available to you.
Virtue Ethics

Aristotle asks:

The ‘Right’ Questions

What is the right level of anger

here?

Do not be rage-boy (or rage-dad). Be firm. It

is important to show the anger, so Plato
understands the gravity of his acts. Going
ballistic would be counterproductive.. at
least with regard to being an example for Ari
Jr.
Virtue Ethics

Aristotle asks:

The ‘Right’ Questions

What is the right way to show the

anger?

Firm speech, with fixed gaze, and clear

indication of purpose. Reprimand him for
being cavalier with others’ lives, especially a
child’s.
Virtue Ethics

Aristotle asks:

The ‘Right’ Questions

What is the right purpose or object

of the anger?

The purpose should include using the moment to educate.

Recognize that the others involved can profit from the
experience. Recognize a duty to society as well, to
prevent Plato from further reckless driving. You can
inform Plato of his endangerment of others. Also, you
can model virtuous behavior for Ari Jr. Note: this
consideration tempers the answers to the previous
questions. The purpose of expression of anger should not
be simply to exact revenge or pain upon Plato. It should
be to show the seriousness of his acts. It also is an
occasion to model behavior for Jr..
Virtue Ethics

Aristotle asks:

The ‘Right’ Questions

Notice, that answering these

questions involves concepts
introduced by the two ethical
theories we have already examined.
Aristotle is looking out after the public welfare (thinking
like a utilitarian) and treating the moment as a
“teachable moment” not only for Ari Jr., but also for
Plato. His actions presume Plato is a rational agent who
will see the error of his ways, and wants to be good. He
acts on the presumption that Ari Jr. will be able to
observe and learn as well. This sounds like Kant’s notion
of respect for persons.
 Virtue Ethics

The ‘Right’ Questions

In short, this is what Aristotle means by “seeking the mean”. It does not
entail mediocrity, but mastery of self and careful thought (when you
have that luxury) about appropriate responses and goals even in
stressful situations. It asks us to consider our social roles and the
impact our actions and reactions will have upon that social matrix, as
we navigate through life and respond to what life presents.

Now, earlier I promised a more serious example. Here it is:

 Virtue Ethics

The ‘Right’ Questions

Hugh Thompson in Mai Lai: Pt 1 Pt 2 Pt 3

 Some Last Words: Aristotle’s advice
Virtue Ethics to individuals:

Remember, that there are aspects of human nature (our emotions and appetites) that are not
easily plied by our reason, but which should be governed by that reason even if only
indirectly. We can form them responsibly, (and thus our character) with concerted effort
over time. Each of us has personal idiosyncrasies or tendencies with regard to emotional
reactions and actions. These often impede or mislead us, even when we rationally recognize
the correct course. What can we do about these stubborn forces? Are we doomed to be
limited by them? No. We need to be aware of these, and can use a rationally backed
program of conditioning and other inducements to eventually control them or cause their
expressions to fall within the ‘mean’.
 Some Last Words: Aristotle’s advice
Virtue Ethics to individuals:

• If a personal emotional tendency is toward one of the extremes, an intentional move toward
the other extreme will eventually habituate to reactions in the range of the mean.
• For example: a person that tends toward irascibility can walk his fire down the ‘anger
range’ toward gentleness by going out of his way to be kind to others. But, he needs to do
this only for a while, until he has successfully moved the slider toward the mean!
• A rash person can correct by choosing to hold back from engaging when dangers present
themselves. A coward can become courageous by behaving rashly for a while.