Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
24 Apr'06
Channel
CS3282 Sectn 8
Rec
10111
Band-pass modulation
Up to now, we have assumed a base-band channel.
Frequency range from zero to B Hz.
Suitably shaped pulses are symbols.
Need transmission over channels which are not base-band:
e.g. channel of bandwidth 200 kHz centred on 900 MHz.
Requires carrier modulated digital modulation.
Approaches for base-band may be adapted to carrier modulated.
Based on modulation techniques as used in radio.
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
CS3282 Sectn 8
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
CS3282 Sectn 8
8.2. Modulation
8.2.1 Introduction to am and fm
Most well known modulation techniques are am and fm
as used for radio & TV.
For am, multiply sine-wave by baseband signal..
For fm cause frequency to be modified by baseband.
Baseband may be speech, music, or just a sine wave.
With digital, baseband will be pulse sequence.
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
t
Modulate
frequency
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
frequency
carrier
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
* message
A cos(Ct) * cos(Mt)
= 0.5A cos(Ct + Mt) + 0.5A cos(Ct - Mt)
= 0.5A cos( ( C + M) t ) + 0.5 A cos( ( C - M) t )
upper sideband
lower sideband
C = 2fC , etc
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
10
Amplitude modulation
CS3282 Sectn 8
11
1+cos(Mt)
t
t
Multiply
V
t
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
12
Low-pass
filter
Rectify
V
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
13
Coherent demodulation
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
14
Coherent demodulation of am
V
Received signal
V
1+cos(Mt)
t
t
Mult
Derive
local
carrier
24 Apr'06
Lowpass
filter
V
t
Local carrier
CS3282 Sectn 8
15
CS3282 Sectn 8
16
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
17
Mult
ADD
Mult
bR(t)
Complex baseband:
b(t) = bI(t) + jbR(t)
Cos(2fCt)
24 Apr'06
Vector demodulator
Sin(2fCt)
bR(t)cos(2fCt)
+
bI(t)sin(2fCt)
Derive local
carrier
(cos & sin)
24 Apr'06
Mult
Mult
Lowpass
filter
Lowpass
filter
bI(t)
bR(t)
Cos(2fCt)
CS3282 Sectn 8
19
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
20
V
t
t
..1 1 0 1 0 ...
Generate
impulses
Pulse-shaping
filter
Map to base-band
Stream of impulses produced according to bits & approach
e.g. for unipolar: unit impulse for 1 & zero for 0.
Pass impulse stream through pulse shaping filter.
Impulses & filter may be analogue or digital (generally digital)
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
21
CS3282 Sectn 8
22
Map to
base-band
Modulate
carrier
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
23
Map to
base-band
24 Apr'06
Multiply
CS3282 Sectn 8
24
Map to
base-band
Multiply
t
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
25
volts
t
10110
Map to
base-band
Multiply
volts
t
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
26
Map to
base-band
24 Apr'06
Multiply
CS3282 Sectn 8
27
r(t)
cos(2ct)
r(t)
b(t)
t
t
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
28
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
29
volts
t
Multiply
24 Apr'06
Low
pass
CS3282 Sectn 8
Threshold
detector
10110
30
t
Rectify
& smooth
24 Apr'06
Threshold
detector
CS3282 Sectn 8
10110
31
t
Low-pass
filter
(smoother)
Diode
Sample
Resistor
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
32
Quadrature to
carrier
Q
In phase
with carrier
I
0
24 Apr'06
2A
3A
CS3282 Sectn 8
33
Threshold
detector
cos(2 ct)
34
Half noise power in phase with cos(2ct ) & half with sin(2ct ).
Non-coherent detection measures envelope of signal plus noise &
is affected by full power of noise.
Coherent detection multiplies by cos(2ct ) low-pass filters & thus
eliminates half the noise power
3dB reduction in effective noise power as seen by detector.
coherent detection tolerates 3dB more noise than non-coherent to
achieve same BER.
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
35
..10010..
Map
Map
bI(t)
bR(t)cos(2 fCt)
+
bI(t)sin(2 fCt)
bR(t)
cos(2 fCt)
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
36
b(t)
Map
11011
Mult
Complx
base-band
Complex
signal. Take
real part.
exp(-2 j fCt)
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
37
8.4.2. Vector-demodulator
Receives bR(t)cos(2fC t) + bI(t)sin(2fC t)
Recovers bR(t) & bI(t) separately.
bR(t) & bI(t) may be considered independent channels.
If each transmits at 1 b/s/Hz, we get 2 b/s per Hz.
Two channels for price of one.
Constellation diagrams becomes more interesting:
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
38
Mult
Received
signal r(t)
24 Apr'06
Threshold
Detector
Low
pass
Mult
Derive local
carrier
(cos & sin)
Threshold
Detector
..11010..
..10010..
bR(t)
Cos(2fCt)
CS3282 Sectn 8
39
CS3282 Sectn 8
40
bI(t) sin2(2 fC t) )
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
41
Trig formulae
This works because cos2() & sin2() have a constant (or
DC) component 0.5 whereas sin()cos() does not.
Relevant formulae are:
cos 2 () = 0.5 + 0.5 cos(2)
sin 2 ()
= 0.5 - 0.5 cos(2)
sin() cos () = 0.5sin(2)
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
42
In quadrature
carrier
3A
A
A
In phase
with carrier
A
0
0
Binary ASK
for bR(t) & bI(t)
24 Apr'06
2A
3A
4-ary ASK
for bR(t) & bI(t)
CS3282 Sectn 8
43
In
phas
Bits
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
bR bI
0 0
0 A
A 0
A A
24 Apr'06
Bits
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 1
1 0
1 0
1 1
1 1
0 0
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
.....
1 1 1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
bR
0
0
0
0
A
A
A
A
2A
2A
bI
0
A
2A
3A
0
A
2A
3A
0
A
3A
3A
CS3282 Sectn 8
44
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
45
FM
Modulator
(VCO)
FSK
1
0
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
3. Vector-modulator method:
For binary FSK with c+1 & c-1, apply cos (21t) to Q and
sin(21t) to I . Sign determines the symbol.
Sin(2ct)
Q input
cos (21t)
I input
sin(21t)
Cos(2ct)
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
47
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
48
BPF (f0)
Decide
BPF (f1)
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
49
f1
t
f0
Low-pass filter
(smoother)
Discriminator
Gain
f
f1
24 Apr'06
Resistor
f0
CS3282 Sectn 8
50
V
t
VCO input
(Voltage input
frequency)
PLL
Frequency
modulated input
24 Apr'06
VCO
output
CS3282 Sectn 8
51
t
Low-pass
filter
VCO input
voltage
V
VCO
VCO output
voltage
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
52
FSK
Limiting
Amplifier
and
Counter
Decide
Data
Clock
Reset
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
53
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
54
PSD
0-1/T
24 Apr'06
0+1/T
1-1/T
CS3282 Sectn 8
1+1/T
55
PSD
PSD
0-1/T
0+1/T
1-1/T
1+1/T
PSD
0-1/T
24 Apr'06
1+1/T
CS3282 Sectn 8
56
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
57
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
58
GMSK transmitter
..10110
..
Map to
impulse
s
24 Apr'06
FIR
Gaussian
shaping
filter
CS3282 Sectn 8
GMSK
VCO
59
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
60
CS3282 Sectn 8
61
24 Apr'06
cos(2 ct)
cos(2 ct)
CS3282 Sectn 8
62
CS3282 Sectn 8
63
cos(2 Ct)
Generate
local carrier
24 Apr'06
cos2(2ct)
= 0.5(1+cos4ct)
Lowpass
filter
1/2
Threshold
Detector
Data
+1/2:1
-1/2:0
cos(2 C t)
CS3282 Sectn 8
64
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
65
900 & 2700 phase shifts often preferred with binary DPSK:
V
1 bit/cycle
1
1
0
1
1
0
Discontinuities tell receiver when next symbol starts.
Makes bit-synchronisation easier when symbol rate not fully
synchronised with carrier (not exact no. of cycles/bit)..
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
66
cos(2 Ct)
cos2(2 ct)
= 0.5(1+cos4 ct)
Lowpass
filter
0.5
Threshold
detector
Delay by T
(Delay for 1 bit)
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
67
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
68
8.6.5 Detector for binary DSPK with 90O & 270O phase
shifts rather than 0 and 180O.
LPF
Delay by T
(Delay for 1
bit)
24 Apr'06
Detect
900 phase
shift
CS3282 Sectn 8
69
Sin(2fCt)
10110
Map
bI(t)
Mult
ADD
Map
11011
24 Apr'06
Mult
bR(t)
Cos(2fCt)
CS3282 Sectn 8
70
QPSK de-modulator
Sin(2fCt)
Low
pass
Mult
Mult
Detect
carrier
24 Apr'06
Cos(2fCt)
bI(t)
Low
pass
10110
Detect
Detect
11011
bR(t)
CS3282 Sectn 8
71
Map
11011
24 Apr'06
b(t)
Complx
base-band
Mult
Transmit
real part
exp(-2j fCt)
CS3282 Sectn 8
72
bit2
0
1
0
1
bR(t) bI(t)
QPSK symbol transmitted
A A Acos(Ct) A sin(Ct) = Acos(Ct1350)
A +A Acos(Ct) + A sin(Ct) = Acos(Ct+1350)
+A A
Acos(Ct) A sin(Ct) = Acos(Ct 450)
+A +A
Acos(Ct) + A sin(Ct) = Acos(Ct +450)
bit2
0
1
0
1
bR(t) bI(t)
A A
A +A
+A A
+A +A
0,1
In phase
with cos
45o
-V
0,0
24 Apr'06
1,1
CS3282 Sectn 8
(real pt)
1,0
74
0,1
0
1
0
1
A 0
0 +A
-A 0
-A -A
0,0
1,0
Real
1,1
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
75
Real
pt
Re
16PSK
8-PSK
CS3282 Sectn 8
76
Exercise 8.6: Consider how symbols for 8-PSK & 16-PSK may be
associated with sequences of 3 or 4 bits, i.e. label the constellation
diagrams. Use a form of 'Gray coding'.
011
001
010
110
000
100
111
101
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
With Gray
coding, a symbol
error generally
causes just one
bit-error
77
001
011
100
000
111
101
110
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
If symbol 111
mistaken for 000
get 3 bit-errors
78
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
79
Symbol
001
010
110
000
100
111
101
24 Apr'06
000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111
CS3282 Sectn 8
bR(t)
bI(t)
V
0
V/1.4 V/1.4
-V/1.4 V/1.4
0
V
V/1.4 -V/1.4
0
-V
-V
0
-V/1.4 -V/1.4
80
Example 8.7 (cont) How would you detect 8-PSK with a vector
demodulator & threshold detectors?
Exercise 8.8:
If radius of constellation diagram circle is V volts for QPSK, 8PSK & 16-PSK calculate energy per bit for each of these schemes
assuming rectangular pulses.
Take 'noise immunity' as distance between each symbol on
constellation diagram & nearest one to it,
Estimate noise immunity for QPSK, 8-PSK & 16-PSK when
radius is V in each case.
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
81
Exercise 8.9:
How will pulse-shaping be applied to QPSK, 8-PSK and 16-PSK?
With 100% RRC pulse shaping & symbol duration T, what is
band-with efficiency (in b/s / Hz) for each of these techniques.
What is theoretical maximum bandwidth efficiency in each case?
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
82
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
83
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
84
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
85
volts
t
..11101..
Excite
Pulse-s
filter
Pulse
shaping
filter
Map to base-band
b(t)
Multiply
Volts
t
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
86
sinc(x)
(x)
-4T
x0
x0
sincT(t)
2T
-2T
-3T
24 Apr'06
-T
CS3282 Sectn 8
4T
3T
87
volts
envelope
t
..11101..
Excite
Pulse-s
filter
Pulse
shaping
filter
Map to base-band
b(t)
Multiply
Volts
t
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
88
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
89
Channels
ignal +
AWGN
Demodulator
24 Apr'06
Matched
b(t) filter
Channel
equaliser
CS3282 Sectn 8
Sample
&
detect
..1100..
90
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
91
Channel equaliser
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
92
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
93
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
94
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
95
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
96
rectT(t)
Fourier
transform
1
t
-T/2
-4/T
T/2
-3/T
-2T
-T
2/T
-1/T
1/T
4T
2T
T
24 Apr'06
4/T
3/T
T.rect1/T(f)
Fourier
transform
-3T
-2/T
sincT(t)
-4T
T.sinc1/T(f)
3T
Real pt shown
Imag pt = 0
t
-1/(2T)
CS3282 Sectn 8
1/(2T)
97
rc(t)
T/2
-3/T
3T/4
-2T
-3T
-T
24 Apr'06
-1/T
rc(t)
4T
2T
T
4/T
2/T
1/T
Real pt shown
Imag pt = 0
3/(4T)
-3/(4T)
-1/(2T)
3T
3/T
RC(f)
Fourier
transform
-4T
-2/T
-4/T
t
-3T/4
Fourier
transform
-T/2
RC(f)
CS3282 Sectn 8
f
1/(2T)
98
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
99
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
100
rectT(t)
1
Modulate F
t
-T/2
Assume purely
real spectrum
F+1/T
f
T/2
F
T.sinc1/T(..)
rectT(t)
Modulate F+1/T
F+2/T
t
-T/2
T/2
F
T.sinc1/T(..)
rectT(t)
1
Modulate F+2/T
F+1/T
F+3/T
t
-T/2
T/2
24 Apr'06
f
F+2/T
CS3282 Sectn 8
101
OFDM spectrum
Combine
real
spectra
SUM
Assume
purely real
spectra
Fourier transform
f
1/T
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
3/T
102
Use of sub-carriers
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
103
Modulation of sub-carriers
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
104
0,0
modulating
cos
1,1
24 Apr'06
Bit1
0
0
1
1
Bit2
0
1
0
1
bR
A
A
-A
-A
bI
A
-A
A
-A
0,1
CS3282 Sectn 8
105
16_QAM constellation
Imag (modulates sin)
(1110)
(0010)
(0110)
3A
(0100)
A
(1100)
-A
(1101)
(1111)
24 Apr'06
(0101)
(0111)
(0000)
A
-A
-3A
(0001)
(0011)
CS3282 Sectn 8
(1010)
(1000)
3A
(1001)
Real
(modulates
cos)
(1011)
106
Sin(2fCt)
t
Mult
Map
-3A,-A,..
Re{..}
ADD
1011 1101..
3A,-3A,..
Mult
V
t
24 Apr'06
Cos(2fCt)
CS3282 Sectn 8
107
1011 1101..
Map
b(t)
Mult
Take
real pt
Complx
base-band
exp(-2jfCt)
Sometimes people make this exp(2jfCt).
Makes little difference as long as they are consistent.
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
108
FFT : {x[n]}0,N-1
X k
N 1
x n e
{X[k]}0,N-1
j 2kn / N
n 0
1
x n
N
{x[n]}0,N-1
N 1
j 2kn / N
X[k]
e
for k = 0 , 1, ...,N-1
n 0
Both are fast in that they can be programmed or implemented in hardware very
efficiently especially when N is a power of 2, e.g. 64, 512, 1024
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
109
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
111
Map
X0(t)
Mult
exp(2jfCt)
11001..
Map
X1(t)
Mult
exp(2j(fC+fD)t)
11001..
Map
XN-1(t)
Mult
exp(2j(fC+63fD)t)
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
112
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
113
10110..
11001..
Map
X0(t)
Map
X1(t)
Stage 1
X0(t)
t
Mult
x(t)
exp(2jfDt)
11001..
Map
X63(t)
Mult
63
exp(2j63fDt)
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
2jmf D t
X
(
t
)
e
m
m 0
114
Stage 2
Complex
multiplication.
63
m 0
(t )e
63
2j ( f C mf D ) t
X
(
t
)
e
m
m0
2jmf D t
OFDM
= x(t)
(complex)
exp(2jfCt)
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
115
Stage 1:
63
x(t) = Xm(t) exp (2jmfD t ) with fD = 1/T
m=0
Take 64 samples of x(t) pulse of duration T
Let = T/64 & denote x(n) by x[n] for n = 0, 1, ..., 63.
Set Xm(n) =Xm : constant for 0<n<63
63
x(n) = x[n] = Xm exp (2jm n /T )
m=0
63
x[n] = Xm exp(jm(2/64)n) : 0 < n < 63
m=0
Generates a set {x[0], x[1], , x[63]} of complex numbers.
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
116
63
x[n] = Xm exp(jm(2/N)n) :
m=0
0<n<63
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
117
Stage 2
Real part of x(t) multiplies cos(2fCt) & imag part multiplies sin(2fCt).
Real part of output is OFDM symbol starting at fC Hz rather than zero.
More convenient to implement Stage 2 digitally
exp(2jfCt) must be sampled & x(t) up-sampled to same sampling rate.
Assume fc = 100 MHz & cos(2fCt) & sin(2fCt) are sampled at 400 MHz.
Must increase sampling rate of x(t) by a factor of 20; i.e.
63
x[n] = Xm exp(jm(2/1280)n) :
m=0
X m : 0 m 63
where Ym
0 : 64 m 1279
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
118
Taking the real part of the result we obtain 100 MHz sinusoidal carrier
modulated by a base-band OFDM signal.
The result is sampled at 40 MHz.
Converting to analogue & removing all frequencies above about 130
MHz leaves an analogue version of the required OFDM signal.
Up-sampling x(t) is useful even in analog implentations to simplify DAC.
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
119
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
120
Cyclic extension
Each 3.2 s pulse is extended to 4 s by prefixing a 0.8 s guard time
The prefix is made to be a copy of the final 0.8 us (16 samples) of the pulse.
It is called a cyclic prefix or cyclic extension.
Generate 80 time-domain complex numbers for each extended pulse
Each extended pulse takes 4 us, so we send 250 k extended pulses/second.
Real{x[n]}
Cyclic
prefix
3.2s pulse
Cyclic
prefix
3.2s pulse
n
-80
16
80
160
3.2s pulse
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
121
OFDM receiver
Coherent demodulator with sampler, sync & symbol extraction.
Apply FFT to recover {X0, X1, , X63}.
Channel distortion cancelled out by equaliser applied to FFT output.
Complex
multiplication.
20 kHz
lowpass
filter
OFDM
Sample
& extract
4s extsymbol
Equa
liser
Detector
Detector
FFT
Detector
Derive local
carrier
24 Apr'06
exp(-2jfCt)
CS3282 Sectn 8
122
Detectors
1,0
0,0
Re
1,1
24 Apr'06
0,1
CS3282 Sectn 8
123
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
124
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
125
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
126
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
127
Solution:
Data is: 00 01 10 11
Then X0 =1+j, X1 = 1- j, X2 = -1+j, X3 = -1-j
X = [ 1+j 1-j -1+j -1-j ]; % array of 4 complex numbers
Perform 4 point IFFT on X to obtain array x
x=ifft(X) % This does it in MATLAB
Array x now contains the 4 samples of the required symbol:
[ 0 0.5 + 0.5j
j
0.5 - 0.5j ]
Including the cyclic extension, this becomes:
[ j 0.5 - 0.5 j 0
0.5 + 0.5j
j
0.5 - 0.5j ]
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
128
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
129
Disadvantages of OFDM
Peak to mean ratio of symbols can be very large by nature of FFT & Inv-FFT.
(Amplitudes can become very large in comparison to the mean)
Shapes OFDM symbols very complex & must be sent & received accurately.
With QPSK on each sub-carrier, 1029 shapes & even more with 64-QAM
Transmitter & receiver must be linear to preserve shape.
Definitely not "constant envelope".
Need class A amplifiers: less power efficient than those for constant envelope
transmissions.
Lot of power lost in the amplifiers.
Not ideal for mobile phones, but fine for mobile computers with bigger batteries
that are not sending data continuously.
Sensitive to Doppler frequency shifts.
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
130
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
131
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
132
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
133
24 Apr'06
CS3282 Sectn 8
134