Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Introduction to:
fluids
Lecture 1
Reservoir fluids
Literature:
Offshore Book,
Offshore center Denmark
Reservoir fluids
Lecture 1
Contents
Introduction
Oil composition and Origin
Source rocks, reservoirs, seals
Accumulation and migration processes
Lecture 1
Introducti
on
7%
Global energy
consumption
2% 1%
90%
Liquid fuels
Conventional
oils
Lecture 1
Lecture 1
Lecture 1
Lecture 1
Lecture 1
50 oC
200 oC
250 oC
Lecture 1
Oil Window
Lecture 1
Lecture 1
Formation of oil
A)
1/ Animals + plants sunk to the bottom of
the sea and lagoons - layers of sediment
covered them
2/ work of anaerobic and aerobic bacteria
3/ covered with layers
4/ rotting material, mixed with grains of
sand and silt, began to change into the
hydrocarbons
5/ P and T speed up the process
Lecture 1
B)
1/ chemical
reactions took
place between
the decaying
organisms and
the salts in the
mud and water
surrounding
them.
Formation of gas
When applied to natural gas this is referred to as thermogenic
methane.
1/ organic material covered with mud and other sediment.
2/ more material = higher pressure
3/ it is buried deeper = high pressure and temperature
4/ At low temperatures (shallower deposits), more oil is produced relative
to natural gas.
5/ Methanogenesis
6/ methane may be formed, is through a biogenic process (a non-biological
process, where oxygen is not involved).
Lecture 1
Organic Matter
(Kerogen)
In general organic rich kerogens are responsible for generating both oil and gas
Those with lesser amount of hydrogen will generate mainly hydrocarbon gas
After depletion of hydrogen in kerogen, generation of hydrocarbon will cease
regardless of amount of carbon
Kerogens can be divided into four types based on provenance and also on
hydrogen, carbon and oxygen content
Each type has a distinct bearing on what type of petroleum if any will be produced
Lecture 1
Kerogen Types
Type I:
Type II:
Type III:
This is derived from terrigenous plant debris which have been deposited in shallow to
deep marine or nonmarine environments. Low in hydrogen and high oxygen content. Tend to
generate dry gas, most coals contain Type III kerogen
Type IV: Derived from residual organic matter found in older sediments reworked after
erosion. High carbon content and no hydrogen. No potential for hydrocarbon generation
Lecture 1
Lecture 1
RESERVOIR FLUIDS:
GAS
Mostly C1
Can contain CO2 and N2
Can contain H2S (sour gas)
Can be dry or wet
CONDENSATE
Mostly C1 with dissolved
light oil
OIL
Mostly C7+
Up to 50% C1 dissolved
Can contain H2S/S (sour oil)
s.gr. 0.8-1.0 g/cm3
WATER
Water + mostly NaCl
s.gr.1.0-1.2 g/cm3
Lecture 1
= Crude Oil
mixture of hydrocarbons
- Mostly C7+
- different types = like light, medium, heavy
Lecture 1
Lecture 1
Gas
Oil
Asphalt
Coal
Kerogen
Carbon
76
84.5
84
83
79
Hydrogen
24
13
10
Sulfur
1.5
Nitrogen
0.5
Oxygen
0.5
10
100
100
100
100
100
Lecture 1
Lecture 1
Volume Percent
27
13
12
10
20
Lecture 1
Residuum (>C40)
18
Total
100
Lecture 1
Paraffin
CnH2n+2
Aromatics
CnH2n-6
Lecture 1
Naphthenes
CnH2n
Olefin
CnH2n-2
Crude oil
- Crude oil varies from different sources
- Some have valuable lighter hydrocarbons, and some
may have more of the heavier hydrocarbons
Lecture 1
Lecture 1
Lecture 3-PVT
Lecture 1
Crude Oil
Correlations
The major objective is to recognize the source fingerprint of the
hydrocarbon molecules in oils, condensates, gases and asphalts
Bulk parameters used in oil-to-oil correlation includes API gravity, pour
point, percent sulfur, stable isotopes of carbon, nitrogen, vanadium
and nickel and whole oil chromatograms
More specific correlations include separation of oil into saturate and
aromatic hydrocarbons and NSO compounds
Correlations using multiple parameters are enhanced by the use of
cross plots and ternary diagrams
Lecture 1
Crude Oil
Correlations
Oil-source rock correlations are generally more difficult than oil-oil
correlations because rock extracts are not necessarily comparable to the
expelled oils in molecular weight distribution, thermal maturation and
biodegradation
Good correlations of oils with their source rocks involve comparing mass
fragmentograms of steranes and terpanes
and using as correlation parameters individual biomarkers ratios such as
homophane, oleanane, gammacerane indices and tricyclic terpanes
Lecture 1
Chromatography analysis
H F _ B R IN _ 6 0 C _ 2 0 M P a _ 1 .S M S T IC
6 0 :6 5 0
C 17
k C o u n ts
50
C 15
C 10
C 23
C 24
C 21
C 22
C 19
20
C 20
C 12
C 18
30
C 16
C 13
C14
40
10
0
5
Lecture 1
10
15
20
25
30
35
m in u te s
Lecture 1
Lacustrine source
oil from SouthChina
Lecture 1
Natural Gas
Natural gas is a combustible mixture of small-molecule
hydrocarbons.
Lecture 1
Oil Window
Lecture 1
Natural Gas
No mixture can be referred to as natural gas as each gas stream has its own
composition. Even two gas wells from the same reservoir may have different
constituents.
Natural gas in its purest form, such as the natural gas that is delivered to your home,
is almost pure methane
Dry gas
x
Wet gas
Natural gas is a vital component of the worlds supply of energy. It is
one of the cleanest, safest, and most useful of all energy sources.
Lecture 1
Natural Gas
Found in reservoirs underneath the earth, natural gas is commonly
associated with oil deposits
Measured at normal temperatures and pressures the volume is
expressed in
normal cubic feet (Ncf or Nf3) or normal cubic metres (Nm3).
Normal denotes a temperature of 0C and a pressure of 1 atm.
Lecture 1
Lecture 1
Reservoir
water
RESERVOIR FLUIDS:
GAS
Mostly C1
Can contain CO2 and N2
Can contain H2S (sour gas)
Can be dry or wet
CONDENSATE
Mostly C1 with dissolved
light oil
OIL
Mostly C7+
Up to 50% C1 dissolved
Can contain H2S/S (sour oil)
s.gr. 0.8-1.0 g/cm3
WATER
Water + mostly NaCl
s.gr.1.0-1.2 g/cm3
Reservoir water
5
%
10%
15%
20%
25
%
Reservoir water
World average:
3.5 o C/100 m
or
2 o F/100 feet
Gradient ca.
:
1 psi/foot or
2.3 g/cm3
2.3 atm/10
m
Usual
gradient:
0.45 psi/foot
or
Ca. 1 g/cm3
1 atm/10 m
Degrees
F
Reservoir water
5
Pressure,
atmospheres
2
Liquid (=
water)
Solid (=
ice)
Vapour (=
steam)
50
100
Temperature,
degrees C
Reservoir water
Accumulation and
Migration
Lecture 1
Source rock
Reservoir
Structural Trap
Seal
Primary and secondary migration
Lecture 1
Source Rock
Rock that produce hydrocarbons from organic matter buried within the rock
pore spaces are known as source rocks
The most common organic rich sedimentary rocks, thought to be the
source rock of most oil and gas is shale
Many shales are black and are often termed as black shale
The black color comes primarily from its organic content
Black shale may have 1-3% of organic matter whereas a green shale may
have only about 0.5%
Lecture 1
Source Rock
Lecture 1
Source Rock
Of the organic matter deposited in the earth crust, only about 2%
becomes petroleum
Of this 2%, only about 0.5% (or 0.01% of the original organic
matter) finds its way into commercially exploitable reservoir
Petroleum generation is a very inefficient process
Limestone can also be a source rock
Methane generation is also coming from some coal beds
Lecture 1
Source Rock
Rocks of marine origin tend to be oil-prone, whereas terrestrial source rocks (such as coal) tend
to be gas-prone
Preservation of organic matter without degradation is critical to creating a good source rock,
and necessary for a complete petroleum system
The hydrocarbons generated from thermally mature source rock are first expelled , along with
other pore fluids, due to the effects of internal source rock over pressuring caused by
hydrocarbon generation as well as by compaction
Once released into porous and permeable carrier beds or into faults planes, oil and gas then
move upwards towards the surface, an overall buoyancy driven process known as secondary
migration
Under the right conditions, source rocks may also be reservoir rocks, as in the case of shale gas
reservoirs
Lecture 1
Source Rocks
Lecture 1
Reservoirs
Lecture 1
Reservoirs
In a reservoir the gas, oil and water are found in pore spaces or fractures within the
rock matrix
Most reservoirs worldwide are contained in sandstone and carbonates structures
that have sufficient porosity to give a good volume of reserves and a high enough
permeability to be able to produce it
Reservoirs are rarely uniform throughout, may consist of layers of materials with
slightly different characteristics
Within the reservoirs there maybe faults or distortions, other rocks maybe present
and all these can form barriers to free flow of hydrocarbons
In USA around 80% of reserves are in sandstones, and 20% in carbonates. In Middle
East almost 100% are in carbonates
Lecture 1
Reserv
oirs
Porosity
Permeability
Lecture 1
Formation of oil
It is important to realize that these hydrocarbons did not
form pools
of oil underground.
porosity
Lecture 1
Reservoir
Lecture 1
Reservoir rock
LIMESTONES:
SANDSTONES: consist og
quartz, feldspar grains and
clay minerals.
Porosity mostly intergranular
(in between the sand grains)
Lecture 1
Seal Rock
A relatively impermeable rock, commonly
shale, anhydrite or salt, that forms a barrier
or seal above and around reservoir rock so
that fluids cannot migrate beyond the
reservoir
Buoyant, migrating fluids remain trapped in
the reservoir by the cap rock unless
deformation or erosion breaches the seal
It is often found atop a dome. The
permeability of a cap rock capable of
retaining fluids through geologic time is ~
10-6-10-8 darcies.
The best petroleum seals are gas hydrates,
followed by evaporites
Lecture 1
Gas Hydrates
What are Gas Hydrates?
Gas hydrates are naturally
ocurring, crystalline, ice-like
substances composed of gas
molecules (methane, ethane,
propane, etc.) held in a cagelike ice structure. (clathrate).
Lecture 1
Migration of petroleum
Process of petroleum migration has been divided into two
parts: primary and secondary migration
Primary migration has been considered to be the
movement of oil and gas and within and out of the
nonreservoir source rocks into the permeable reservoir rocks
Secondary migration is the movement within carrier rocks
and reservoir type rocks leading to a petroleum accumulation
Lecture 1
Lecture 1
Primary migration
Primary migration is more correctly defined as any movement within the fine grained
portion of the mature source rock
Primary oil migration in source rocks with 2% or more TOC occur initially as a bitumen
that absorbs water and expands into micropores and beddings plae to form a water
saturated bitumen
As the bitumen partially decomposes to oil, the later mixes with gas from the kerogen
and migrates out as an oil gas mixture
This may be as a single or separate phase depending on the pressure-temperature
conditions
Water is an important factor that influences the direction, distance and areal extent of
petroleum migration
Lecture 1
Primary migration
Primary migration
Inscience,buoyancy/
b.nsi/is an upward
force exerted by a fluid
that opposes theweight
of an immersed object.
In a column of fluid,
pressure increases with
depth as a result of the
weight of the overlying
fluid.
Lecture 1
Primary Migration
The mechanisms of hydrocarbon migration inside the
matrix of a fine grained source rock are diffusion,
solution and oil-gas phase
Most primary migration occurs as an oil-gas phase
Diffusion and solution is relevant to only the smallest
and most soluble molecules
Lecture 1
Primary migration
Diffusion: is a spontaneous, irreversible process in which hydrocarbons
move in the direction of lower concentration
Diffusion tends to disperse hydrocarbons rather than concentrate them
It is an exceedingly slow process
Methane which moves further by diffusion than do all other
hydrocarbons still takes 140 million years to move vertically through
1740 m of rock matrix
Lecture 1
Primary Migration
Lecture 1
Lecture 1
saturation
Primary Migration
Lecture 1
Secondary Migration
The main driving force for secondary petroleum migration is the buoyancy of the hydrocarbons
The resisting force is the capillary pressure of the rock water system
The modifying forces include hydrodynamic fluid flow and isolated abnormal pressure
compartments
The buoyant force is the difference in density between the hydrocarbon phase and the water
phase, the greater the difference the greater the buoyant force will be for the hydrocarbon
column
Migration directions and distances from source rock to reservoir rock depends on the basin size
and configuration
For example vertical migration depends on faults to carry the oil from source to reservoirs
Lecture 1
Overview
Lecture 1
Lecture 1
Lecture 2
(Ro = measurement
that can be made under
a microscope)
Oil Reserves
Lecture 1
Oil Reserves
Lecture 1
Oil Reserves
Lecture 1
Gas Reserves
Lecture 1
Lecture 1