Earthquake Seismology

Literature Text Books

Shearer, Introduction to Seismology, Cambridge

University Press, 1990.

Wysession and Stein, An introduction to seismology,

earthquakes and earth structure, Blackwell Scientific
Kennett, The Seismic Wavefield, I+II, Cambridge
University Press
Lay and Wallace, Modern Global Seismology, Academic
Press, 1995.
Gubbins, Seismology and Plate Tectonics, Cambridge
University Press, 1990.
Aki and Richards, Quantitative Seismology, Academic
Press, 2002.

Introduction
earthquake:

a trembling or shaking of the

ground caused by the sudden release of
energy stored in the rocks beneath the earths
surface
seismic waves: the waves of energy produced
by an earthquake
elastic rebound theory: the sudden release of
progressively stored strain in rocks that
results in movement along a fault

Causes of Earthquakes
movement

along faults
explosive volcanic eruptions
mineral transformations within the
downgoing rock as pressure collapses
one mineral into a denser form
Nuclear explosion

Aspects of seismology?
Seismology is science dealing with all aspects of
earthquakes:
OBSERVATIONAL SEISMOLOGY

Recording earthquakes (microseismology)

Cataloguing earthquakes
Observing earthquake effects
(macroseismology)

ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY
Estimation of seismic hazard

Aseismic building

and risk

PHYSICAL SEISMOLOGY
Study of the properties

of the Earths interior

Study of physical characteristics of seismic sources

EXPLORATIONAL SEISMOLOGY (Applied seismic methods)...

Seismology

Multidisciplinary science, links physics with other geosciences

(geology, geography)

International science

Large span of amplitudes

( ~ 10-9 101 m)

Very large span of wave

periods ( ~ 10-3 104 s)

Very young science

(second half of the
19th century)

Myths and legends

Earthquakes occur:
When one of the eight elephants that carry the Earth gets
tired (Hindu)

When a frog that carries the world moves

(Mongolia)
When the giant on whose head we all live,
sneezes or scratches (Africa)

When the attention of the god Kashima (who looks after

the giant catfish Namazu that supports the Earth and
prevents it to sink into the ocean) weakens and Namazu
moves (Japan)

When the god Maimas decides to count the population in

Peru his footsteps shake the Earth. Then natives run out of
their huts and yell: Im here, Im here!

Seismic waves in a homogeneous

planet would be neither reflected nor
refracted. Lines drawn perpendicular to
the wave fronts (rays) would
follow linear paths.

Seismic waves in a differentiated

planet would pass through material
that gradually increases in rigidity with
depth. As a result, wave velocities would
increase steadily with depth, and rays
would follow curved path.

The shadow zone of S waves

extends almost halfway around
the globe from the earthquakes
focus.This phenomenon can be
explained if the outer core of Earth is
liquid. Because S waves cannot
travel through liquid, they do not
pass through the core.

A P wave shadow
zone occurs in the area
between 103 and
143 from an earthquakes
focus.The best way to explain
the P wave shadow zone is to
postulate that Earth has a
central core through which P
waves travel relatively slowly.
Ray 1 just misses the core and
is received at a station located
103 from the earthquakes
focus. A steeper ray, such as
ray 2, encounters the boundary
of the core and is refracted. It
travels through the core,is
refracted again at the cores
boundary, and is received at a
station fewer than 180 from
the focus. Similarly, ray 3 is
refractedand emerges at the
surface 143 from thefocus.
Other rays that are steeper
than ray 1
are severely bent by the core,
so that no P waves are directly
received in the shadow zone.
From shadow zones,
seismologists
calculate that the boundary of
the core is 2900 km below the

The internal structure of Earth is deduced from variations in the velocity of

seismic waves at depth.The velocity of both P waves and S waves increases until they
reach a depth of approximately 100 km.There the waves are slow until they have traveled
to a depth of about 250 km.This low-velocity layer lies within the asthenosphere. Below
this, the velocity of P waves and S waves increases until a depth of about 2900 km, where
both velocities change abruptly. S waves do not travel through the central part of Earth,
and the velocity of the P waves decreases drastically.This variation is the most striking
discontinuity and indicates the boundary between the liquid outer core and the mantle.
Another discontinuity in P wave velocity, at a depth of 5000 km, indicates the surface of
the solid inner core.

The low velocity zone is revealed by

a drop in the velocities of both P waves
(shown here) and S waves.This marks a
zone of low strength in the upper mantle
between about 100 and 250 km below the
surface. The low-velocity zone is contained
in the asthenosphere and marks part of
the mantle that is very near its melting
point and may be a zone of partial melting.

Discontinuities in seismic wave

velocities may correspond to phase
changes.The blue line shows how P wave
velocities change with depth.The other lines
show velocities for various minerals.The
uppermost mantle is dominated by olivine.
Below 400 km a velocity increase implies
olivine is replaced by spinel. At greater
depths, spinel is probably replaced by
magnesium perovskite. Each change
increases the density of the mantle.

To see how earthquakes really occur, we first

need to learn about constitution of the Earth!

The Three Major Chemical Radial Divisions

Crust
Mantle
Core

The Shallowest Layer

of the Earth: the Crust

The crust is the most

heterogeneous layer in the
Earth
The crust is on average 33
km thick for continents and
10 km thick beneath
oceans; however it varies
from just a few km to over
70 km globally.

The boundary between the

crust and the mantle is
mostly chemical. The crust
and mantle have different
compositions.

This boundary is
referred to as the
Mohorovii
discontinuity
or Moho.

It was discovered in 1910 by

the Croatian seismologist
Andrija Mohorovii.

Middle Earth: The

Mantle

Earths mantle exists from the

bottom of the crust to a depth
of 2891 km (radius of 3480
km) Gutenberg
discontinuity
It is further subdivided into:

The uppermost mantle

Beno
(crust to 400 km depth)
Gutenberg
The transition zone
(400 700 km depth)
The mid-mantle
(700 to ~2650 km depth)
The lowermost mantle
(~2650 2891 km depth)

The uppermost mantle is

composed dominantly of
olivine; lesser components
include pyroxene, enstatite,
and garnet

Earths Core

Owing to the great pressure

inside the Earth the Earths
core is actually freezing as
the Earth gradually cools.

The boundary between the

liquid outer core and the
solid inner core occurs at a
radius of about 1220 km
Lehman discontinuity,
after Inge Lehman from
Denmark.

The boundary between the

mantle and outer core is
sharp.
The change in density across
the core-mantle boundary is
greater than that at the
Earths surface!

The viscosity of the outer

core is similar to that of
water, it flows kilometers per
year and creates the Earths
magnetic field.

The outer core is the most

homogeneous part of the
Earth

The outer core is mostly an

alloy of iron and nickel in
liquid form.

As the core freezes latent

heat is released; this heat
causes the outer core to
convect and so generates a
magnetic field.

Mechanic
al Layers:

1.

Lithosphere

2.

Asthenosphere

3.

Mesosphere

Lithosphere

The lithosphere is the

uppermost 50-100 km
of the Earth.

There is not a strict boundary between the

lithosphere and the asthenosphere as there is
between the crust and mantle.

It consists of both crust and upper parts of

mantle.

It behaves rigidly, like a solid, over very long

time periods.

Asthenosphere

The asthenosphere exists between depths of

100-200 km.
It is the weakest part of the mantle.
It is a solid over short time scales, but behaves
like a fluid over millions of years.
The asthenosphere decouples the lithosphere
(tectonic plates) from the rest of the mantle.

Tectonic forces

The interior of the Earth is

dynamic it cools down and thus
provides energy for convective
currents in the outer core and in
the astenosphere.

Additional energy comes from

radioactive decay...

Plate tectonics
PLATE TECTONICS theory is very young
(1960-ies)
It provides answers to the most
fundamental questions in seismology:

Why earthquakes occur?

Why are earthquake epicenters not

uniformly distributed around the globe?

At what depths are their foci?

Major tectonic plates

How earthquakes
occur?

Earthquakes occur at FAULTS.

Fault is a weak zone separating

two geological blocks.

Tectonic forces
cause the blocks
to move relative
one to another.

How earthquakes
occur?
Elastic rebound
theory

The point beneath the Earth's

surface where the rocks break
and move is called the focus of
the earthquake. The focus is the
underground point of origin of
an earthquake.
Directly above the
focus, on the Earth's
surface, is the
epicenter.
The relationship between an earthquakes focus, its
epicenter,
and seismic wave fronts

How earthquakes
occur?
Elastic rebound
theory

Because of friction, the blocks do not slide, but are

deformed.
When the stresses within rocks exceed friction, rupture
occurs.

Location of Earthquake
Focus
Earthquakes are concentrated in its upper 700 km.
Within the 700-km range, earthquakes can be grouped
according to depth of focus.
Shallow-focus earthquakes occur from the surface
to a depth of 70 km. They occur in all seismic belts and
produce the largest percentage of earthquakes.
Intermediate-focus

earthquakes occur between 70

and 300 km below the surface,
Deep-focus

earthquakes between 300 and 700 km.

Elastic waves Body

waves
Longitudinal waves:
They are faster than transversal waves and thus
arrive first.
The particles oscillate in the direction of
spreading of the wave.
Compressional waves
P-waves
Transversal waves:
The particles oscillate in the direction
perpendicular to the spreading direction.
Shear waves they do not propagate through
solids (e.g. through the outer core).
S-waves

Motion produced by various types of seismic

waves

Elastic waves Body

waves

P-waves:

S-waves:

Elastic waves Surface

waves

Surface waves: Rayleigh and Love waves

Their amplitude diminishes with the depth.

They have large amplitudes and are slower
than body waves.
These are dispersive waves (large periods are
faster).

Properties of waves

Important terms are

Amplitude - height of wave above the starting point
Wavelength - the distance between successive waves
Period - the time between successive waves = 1/ Frequency
Body waves - 0.5 to 20 Hz
Surface waves - 0.005 to 0.1 Hz.

Measuring Earthquakes

seismograph: a recording device that

produces a permanent record of earth
motion detected by a seismometer,
usually in the form of a wiggly line
drawn on a moving strip of paper

A seismograph for horizontal motion. Modern seismographs record earth motion on moving strips of paper.
by a wire from the column and swings like a pendulum when the ground moves horizontally. A pen attached
motion on a moving strip of paper.

Measuring Earthquakes

A simple seismograph for detecting vertical rock motion. The pen records the ground motion on the seismo
stretches and compresses with up and down movement of the spring. Frame and recording drum move wit
the weight keeps it and the needle relatively motionless.

Measuring
Earthquakes (cont.)

seismogram: the paper record of each

vibration

A seismogram

Seismology and the

Earths Deep Interior

A seismogram is the record of

ground movement detected by a
seismometer and portrayed on a
time-versus-amplitude graph .
Seismograms show how the ground
moves with the passage of time.

Seismometers can detect local ground

movement caused by large distant events,
as well as by the movement caused by large
and small events close to the seismometer.

Microseisms can be caused by

environmental
noise (wind, lightening, rain), motor
vehicles, and

A seismograph has 3 sensors that record NS, EW, and vertical motion on 3
seismograms. The different behavior of P, S, and surface waves explain how
a single seismograph station can have 3 different seismograms: 1) The
vertical component shows the compressive P wave bumping up from
beneath; it has very little horizontal movement; 2) The shearing S wave has
mostly
side-to-side
motion;
3)
The
surface waves have an effect on all components.

This USGS graphic

shows typical
seismograms
from ordinary
earthquakes, plus
the signals that you
might
see from other
ground-shaking
events. Note that it
takes
considerable
training to be able
to read
seimograms.

Seismograms
recognized at Mount
St. Helens:

Seismographs

Seismographs are devices

that record ground motion
during earthquakes.
The first seismographs were
constructed at the very end
of the 19th century in Italy
and Germany.

How Seismographs Work

1. Earthquakes generate waves that

travel through the earth

Seismographs

Horizontal 1000 kg
Wiechert seismograph in
Zagreb

Seismographs

Modern digital broadband

seismographs are capable of
recording almost the whole
seismological spectrum (50
Hz 300 s).
Their resolution of 24 bits
(high dynamic range) allows
for precise recording of small
quakes, as well as
unsaturated registration of
the largest ones.

Determining the Location of an

Earthquake
travel-time curve: a plot of seismicwave arrival times against distance

A travel time curve is used to determine the distance to an earthquake.

Note that the time interval between the first arrival of P and S waves
increases with distance from the epicenter.Seismogram X has a 3-minute
interval between P and S waves corresponding to a distance of 2,000 km
from the epicenter, Y has an interval of 8 minutes, so the earthquake
occurred 5,300 km away, and Z an interval of 12 minutes, and is a distance

Determining the Location of an

Earthquake

Locating an earthquake. The distance from each of three stations (Denver, St. Johns, and Lima
determined from seismograms and the travel-time curves shown in figure 16.9. Each distance
for the radius of a circle about the station. The location of the earthquake is just offshore of Va
British Columbia, where the three circles intersect.

Measuring the Size of an

Earthquake

intensity: a measure of an earthquakes effect on

people and buildings
modified Mercalli scale: scale expressing intensities of
earthquakes (judged on amount of damage done) in
Roman numerals ranging from I to XII
magnitude: a measure of the energy released during
the earthquake
Richter scale: a numerical scale of magnitudes
moment magnitude: an earthquake magnitude
calculated from the strength of the rock, surface area
of the fault rupture, and the amount of rock
displacement along the fault

Observational
Seismology

We are now
equipped to start
recording and
locating
earthquakes. For that
we need a seismic
network of as many
stations as possible.
Minimal number of
stations needed to
locate the position of
an earthquake
epicentre is three.

Broad-band seismological stations in

Europe

Observational
Seismology
Locating
Earthquakes
To locate an

earthquake we need
precise readings of
the times when P- and
S-waves arrive at a
number of seismic
stations.
Accurate absolute
timing (with a
precission of 0.01 s) is
essential in
seismology!

Observational
Seismology
Locating
Earthquakes
Knowing the

difference in arrival
times of the two
waves, and knowing
their velocity, we may
calculate the distance
of the epicentre.
This is done using the
travel-time curves
which show how long
does it take for P- and
S-waves to reach
some epicentral

Observational
Seismology
Locating Earthquakes

Another example of
picking arrival
times

Observational
Seismology
Locating
Earthquakes
After we know the

distance of epicentre
from at least three
stations we may find
the epicentre like this
There are more
sofisticated methods
of locating positions
of earthquake foci.
This is a classic
example of an inverse
problem.

SEISMOLOGY

LOCATING EARTHQUAKES
Triangulation
Need three different seismic
stations to locate an
earthquake.
Measure the P-S arrival times and
convert these to distance.
Triangulate using radius given by PS travel times.
Triangulation for position of an
earthquake near New Madrid
using stations in Columbus, St
Louis and Memphis

Locating Earthquakes

1. Earthquakes generate waves that

travel through the earth

Locating Earthquakes

Locating Earthquakes

1. Earthquakes generate waves that

travel through the earth

Locating Earthquakes Depth

1. Earthquakes generate waves that

travel through the earth

FIRST MOTION

Magnitude and
Intensity
Intensity
How Strong Earthquake Feels to
Observer
Magnitude
Related to Energy Release
Determined from Seismic Records
Rough correlation between the two for
shallow earthquakes

5. Magnitude and Intensity

Intensity
How Strong Earthquake Feels to
Observer
Depends On:
Distance to Quake
Geology
Type of Building
Observer!
Varies from Place to Place
Mercalli Scale- 1 to 12
5. Magnitude and Intensity

Observational
Seismology
Some statistics
Magnitude Effects
per year

Number

less than 2
2
3
4
5
6
7-8
8-9

Not felt by humans. Recorded by instruments

only.
Numerous
Felt only by the most sensitive.
Suspended objects swing
>1 000 000
Felt by some people. Vibration like a
passing heavy vehicle
100 000
Felt by most people. Hanging objects swing.
Dishes and windows rattle and may break 12 000
Felt by all; people frightened.
Chimneys topple; furniture moves
1 400
Panic. Buildings may suffer substantial
damage
160
Widespread panic. Few buildings remain
standing. Large landslides; fissures in ground
20
Complete devastation. Ground waves
~2

Observational
Seismology
Equivalent
Some
statistics
Magnitude Event
Energy (tons TNT)

2.0

Large quary blast

2.5

Moderate lightning bolt

3.5

Large ligtning bolt

4.5

Average tornado

6.0

Hiroshima atomic bomb

7.0

Largest nuclear test

7.7

Mt. Saint Helens eruption

8.5

Krakatoa eruption

9.5

Chilean earthquake 1960

1
5
75
5 100
20 000
32 000 000
100 000 000
1 000 000 000
32 000 000 000

Observational
Seismology
Some statistics

Observational
Seismology
Some statistics

Observational
Seismology
MACROSEISMOLOGY deals with effects of
Macroseismology

earthquakes on humans, animals, objects and

surroundings.

The data are collected by field trips into the

shaken area, and/or by questionaires sent there.

The effects are then expressed as earthquake

INTENSITY at each of the studied places.

Intensity is graded according to macroseismic

scales Mercalli-Cancani-Sieberg (MCS),
Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik (MSK), Modified
Mercalli (MM), European Macroseismic Scale
(EMS).

Observational
Seismology
European Macroseismic Scale (EMS 98)
Macroseismology
EMS DEFINITION

SHORT DESCRIPTION

Not felt

Not felt, even under the most favourable circumstances.

II

Scarcely felt

Vibration is felt only by individual people at rest in

houses, especially on upper floors of buildings.

III
Weak
People at

The vibration is weak and is felt indoors by a few

rest feel a swaying or light trembling.

people.

IV
Largely
very
observed
frightobjects swing.

The earthquake is felt indoors by many people, outdoors by

few. A few people are awakened. The level of vibration is not
ening. Windows, doors and dishes rattle. Hanging

V
Strong
The earthquake is felt indoors by most, outdoors by few.
Many
sleeping people awake. A few run outdoors.
Buildings tremble
throughout. Hanging objects swing considerably.

EMS DEFINITION

SHORT DESCRIPTION

VI

Slightly
Felt by most indoors and by many outdoors. Many people in
damaging buildings are frightened and run outdoors. Small objects fall.
Slight
damage to many ordinary buildings e.g. fine cracks
in plaster and
small pieces of plaster fall.
VII Damaging Most people are frightened and run outdoors. Furniture is
shifted and
objects fall from shelves in large numbers. Many
ordinary buildings
suffer moderate damage: small cracks in
walls; partial collapse of
chimneys.
VIII Heavily
Furniture may be overturned. Many ordinary buildings suffer
damaging damage: chimneys fall; large cracks appear in walls and a
few
buildings may partially collapse.
IX
Destructive
ordinary
collapse completely.

Monuments and columns fall or are twisted. Many

buildings partially collapse and a few

Very
Many ordinary buildings collapse.
destructive

XI

Devastating

Most ordinary buildings collapse.

XII
are

Completely

Practically all structures above and below ground

devastating

heavily damaged or destroyed.

Observational
Seismology

Macroseismology

Results

of macroseismic surveys
are presented on isoseismal
maps.

Isoseismals

are curves
connecting the places with same
intensities.

DO

NOT CONFUSE INTENSITY

AND MAGNITUDE!

Just

approximately, epicentral
intensity is: Io = M + 2

One

earthquake has just one

Safest & Most Dangerous

Buildings

Small, Wood-frame House - Safest

Steel-Frame
Reinforced Concrete
Unreinforced Masonry
Adobe(earthen brick made from
earth and straw and dried by the sun)
- Most Dangerous
4. Earthquakes dont kill people, buildings
kill people

Magnitude and
Intensity
Intensity
How Strong Earthquake Feels to
Observer
Magnitude
Related to Energy Release
Determined from Seismic Records
Rough correlation between the two for
shallow earthquakes

5. Magnitude and Intensity

Intensity
How Strong Earthquake Feels to
Observer
Depends On:
Distance to Quake
Geology
Type of Building
Observer!
Varies from Place to Place
Mercalli Scale- 1 to 12
5. Magnitude and Intensity

SEISMOLOGY
MAGNITUDE
Scale

Richer scale
Based on the log to the base ten
of the amplitudes of a
standard seismometer 100
km from the earthquake
center.
For every ten fold increase in
amplitude the Richter
magnitude increases by one.
However the energy release goes
up by a much large factor
Quick and easy to use

SEISMOLOGY

MAGNITUDE
Nomograph of the Richter scale
Read the difference in travel
time between P and S
waves and plot.
Read the maximum
amplitude of the S wave
and plot.
Draw a line between the two
points and gives the
magnitude.

SEISMOLOGY

MAGNITUDE
Earthquakes in the world each year.

Earth is shaken by millions

of quakes each year.
Most are too small to be
felt.
To be damaging most
have to be above 6.0
Above 7 they can cause
major damage.
Note the decrease in
frequency as the
magnitude increases

SEISMOLOGY

MAGNITUDE
Comparison of Earthquakes
Comparison of Northridge, Loma
Prieta, San Francisco and
Sumatra 2004 earthquakes.
Compute seismic moment and
then convert to Moment
Magnitude
Moment is more reliable
measure for large
earthquakes as it measures
directly the amount of strain
energy released by
movement along rupture
surface.

GROUND MOTION

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
Acceleration and Resonance
Buildings built to handle vertical forces such as weight but
not horizontal forces.
Acceleration compared to gravity 9.8 m/sec2
Acceleration -

.1g weak buildings break up

1g nothing stands up

Resonance -

ground has natural frequency

buildings have natural frequency
1 story .1s/ 30 story 3 secs / .1sec per

story

GROUND MOTION
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
Earthquake Intensity

Want quantitative method of measuring effect of

earthquakes.
Use descriptive Mercalli scale
Major variables - Magnitude
- Distance from hypocenter
- Foundation materials/slopes
- Building style
- Duration of shaking

GROUND MOTION

EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY
Mercalli Scale

Earthquake magnitude asses energy released by earthquakes.

Earthquake intensity measures the effect on people and buildings
Used to asses historical records

EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

In addition to ground shaking and surface faulting,

earthquake hazards include
Submergence
ground motion
fire
landslides
liquefaction (a special type of ground failure)
permanent displacement of the land surface
aftershocks: small earthquakes that follow the main shock
Fires and floods caused by breakage of water lines or dam
failures are also important.

TSUNAMI

HOW CREATED
Biggest and most feared wave, harbor wave - Japanese
Due to sub sea movements that disturb water mass, most
often earthquakes.
Analogous to throwing a stone into a pool, ripples - tsunami
waves
Period 10 - 60 min, Wavelength 100 - 800 km, amplitude 1
-2 m, velocity 230 m/sec (500 mph)
At coast waves slow down and pile up and come on shore
like a very rapidly rising tide.

Tsunamis

tsunamis (seismic sea waves):

huge ocean wave produced by
displacement of the sea floor

World Distribution of
Earthquakes

Circum-Pacific belt: the most important

concentration of earthquakes which encircles the
rim of the Pacific Ocean. Approximately 80% of
the worlds shallow-focus quakes, 90% of the
intermediate-focus quakes, and nearly 100% of
the deep-focus quakes occur there.
Mediterranean-Himalayan belt: a major
concentration of earthquakes which runs
through the Mediterranean Sea, crosses the
Middle East and the Himalayas, and passes
through the East Indies to meet the circumPacific belt north of Australia

World Distribution of
Earthquakes

World Distribution of Earthquakes

Benioff zones: distinct earthquake zone that

begins at an oceanic trench and slopes
landward and downward into the earth at an
angle of about 30o to 60o
island arc: Benioff zones that slope under a
continent or a curved line of islands

Strategies of Earthquake
Prediction
Lengthy Historical
Data Base
Historical
Records
Paleoseismology
Short-term
Prediction
Precursors

Long-term Prediction
Seismic Gaps
Risk Levels
Modeling
Dilatancy Diffusion
Stick - Slip
Asperities (kinks)
Crack Propagation

7. Predicting earthquakes is not yet

possible

Earthquakes at Divergent Boundaries

divergent boundaries: where plates

move away from each other
the rock motion that is deduced
from first-motion studies shows
that the faults here are normal
faults, parallel to the rift valley

Earthquakes at Transform Boundaries

transform boundaries: where

plates move horizontally past each
other
first-motion studies indicate strikeslip motion on faults parallel to the
boundary
Narrow band of shallow-focus earthquakes shown as stars along single fault

Broad band of earthquakes along a system of parallel faults

Earthquakes at Convergent
Boundaries
convergent boundaries: where plates
move toward each other
two general types - one marked by the
collision of two continents, the other
marked by subduction of the ocean floor
under a continent

Engineering
Seismology
Earthquakes

are the only natural

disasters that are mostly
harmless to humans! The only
danger comes from buildings
designed not to withstand the
largest possible earthquakes in
the area.

Engineering

seismology
provides civil engineers
parameters they need in order to
construct seismically safe and
sound structures.

Engineering

seismology is a

Izmit, Turkey, 1999

Engineering
Seismology
In order to estimate the parameters,
seismologists need:

Complete earthquake catalogues that

extend well into the past,

Information on the soil structure and

properties at the construction site, as well
as on the path between epicentre and the
site,

Records of strong earthquakes and small

events from near-by epicentral regions,

Engineering
Seismology
Complete and
homogeneous
earthquake catalogues
are of paramount
importance in seismic
hazard studies.

Seismicity of Croatia after

the Croatian Earthquake
Catalogue that lists over

Engineering Seismology
Soil amplification

Spectral amplification along

a profile in Thessaloniki ,
Greece

Amplification of seismic waves

in shallow soil deposits may
cause extensive damage even
far away from the epicentre. It
depends
on:
Thickness of soil above
the base rock,
Density and elastic
properties of soil,
Frequency of shaking,
The strength of

Intensity and Bedrock Depth in

San Francisco, 1906

5. Magnitude and Intensity

Physical
Seismology

Our knowledge about

the structure of the
Earth deeper than
several km was gained
almost exclusively using
seismological methods.

Seismologists use
seismic rays to look into
the interior of the Earth
in the same way doctors
use X-rays.

TSUNAMI

HOW CREATED
Biggest and most feared wave, harbor wave - Japanese
Due to sub sea movements that disturb water mass, most
often earthquakes.
Analogous to throwing a stone into a pool, ripples - tsunami
waves
Period 10 - 60 min, Wavelength 100 - 800 km, amplitude 1
-2 m, velocity 230 m/sec (500 mph)
At coast waves slow down and pile up and come on shore
like a very rapidly rising tide.

TSUNAMI

NOTALBLE TSUNAMI IN RECENT TIMES

Many tsunamis in the Pacific.

Mainly from sea bottom motion during earthquake.
Velocity = (g x D) where D is the depth of the ocean in
meters. = 230 m/sec
Moves quite slowly relative to P and S waves

TSUNAMI

EARLY WARNING SYSTEM

P, S and surface waves move at between 10 - 5.5 km/sec.

Much faster than tsunami velocity of 230 m/sec. Body waves arrive
much sooner than the tsunami waves.
Have enough time to determine size and position of earthquake before
the tsunami arrives.This is the basis of the early warning system .

Earthquakes: Facts and Fiction

Fiction: Earthquakes usually happen in the morning.
Fact: Earthquakes happen in both the day and the
night. There is no pattern.
Fiction: There is such a thing as "earthquake weather."
Fact: There is no connection between earthquakes and
weather. Remember, earthquakes happen deep in the
earth, far away from the weather!
Fiction: Earthquakes are on the increase.
Fact: It may seem like were having more earthquakes
because there are more reporting stations, but the truth
is were not.
Fiction: We can prevent earthquakes from happening.
Fact: No. You can protect yourself by doing things to
secure buildings, like your home, but earthquakes cant
be prevented -- or predicted.