Psychological Motives

Physiological motives and emotions deal primarily with

continuing life

Sex
Homeostasis food, water,
Emotions

Fear avoiding injury

Disgust avoid sickness
Anger & aggression - confront threat

What about other things that do not aid survival?

Why have hobbies, play games, make (or break) things,

socialize with others, etc.
Why certain survival choices (occupation) and not others
engineering vs. psychology?

Psychological Motives

Brain requirements not necessarily essential for

survival

Things people require to thrive

Very important for health and happiness

People can survive without these things but not prosper

Doing these things brings enjoyment/pleasure

Just as fulfilling physiological needs [food, sex, etc.] does

What are the psychological Motives?

Not tied to specific objects/activities

Asking 100 people would result in a long list with

many unique items

In contrast to physiological needs & emotions

This approach would lead to problems associated with

instinct theories

Common themes of psychological motives

Common sources of pleasure/satisfaction in the multitude

of things people do for psychological needs

Identifying candidates for

psychological motives

Sheldon, Elliot, Kim, & Kasser (2001)

Describe most satisfying event in last week,
month, or semester (three studies)

Rate extent that During this event I felt 30 different

statements (5 point scale; not at all to very much)

that my choices were based on my true interests and

values (autonomy)
that I was successfully completing difficult tasks and
projects (competence)
a sense of contact with people who care for me, and whom
I care for (relatedness)
that I had many positive qualities (self-esteem)

Identifying candidates for

psychological motives

Three statements each from 10 different dimensions

(e.g., autonomy)

that my choices were based on my true interests and values

free to do things my own way
that my choices expressed my true self

Highest scores for 4 (of the 10) qualities above

Satisfaction associated with things that:

raise our view/attitude toward self (self-esteem)

involve significant others (relatedness)
demonstrate that we are competent (competence)
that were self-determined (autonomy)

Identifying candidates for

psychological motives

Why might these be important?

These types of things can be associated with

nearly any behavior

Hobbies, games, activities, etc. can all be viewed

through these dimension

Psychological needs help reinforce and guide

behavior toward success

Seek further challenges in domain

Help people find vocational niches in social system

Curiosity

Early exploration into psychological motives

Scientific Origins

Behaviorism

Drives (hunger, thirst, sex) energize behavior

Animals encounter drive reducing stimulus
Learn & become efficient at finding stimuli

Exploration is innate and not just produced by drives

Intelligent animals will explore objects even when there is

no reason (drive)
Novelty interest in objects gradually diminishes as the
objects are explored
Preference for complex stimuli

Exploratory Behavior

Important for survival

Finding food, shelter, mates, avoiding danger,

etc.

Positive Feedback

Novel things are explored

Understanding them is rewarding
Explore other novel things

Exploratory Behavior

Moderators

Negative affect fear, anxiety

Survival takes precedence over exploring

Secure attachment in infants

Individual Differences

Openness to Experience
Extroversion
Anxiety
Sensation Seeking

Origins of Curiosity

Curiosity

Evident in all intelligent animals

Not major source of satisfaction (from above study)

Curiosity (Exploratory Behavior) allows

competence & autonomy

Knowing environment, people, objects that you encounter

to better do other things find food, avoid danger, have
sex, find shelter, etc.
Allows for more autonomy

Children explore so they are less dependent on others

Autonomy relative to group couples will specialize in
different tasks so together they are autonomous

Intrinsic Motivation

Core Psychological Motives

Autonomy (control)
Competence
Relatedness
Self-esteem

Secondary Motives that arise from Core

Curiosity function of autonomy & competence

Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic

Motivation from within self

Typically refers to psychological motives

Inherent pleasure associated with behavior

Extrinsic

Motivation due to environmental incentives/consequences

Behavior is not inherently enjoyable
Behavior is done because of anticipated consequences
(e.g., money, food, social rewards, etc.)

Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation

Behaviors

Same behavior might be driven by different motives in

different people

Example: competition athletic, mental, social, etc.

Intrinsic motivation enjoy the task, enjoys competition
Extrinsic motivation social acknowledgement of
accomplishment

Ramifications of intrinsic vs. extrinsic

Maintaining extrinsic depends on reward

Intrinsic motivation more likely to persist

Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation

Assessing whether behavior is due to

intrinsic or extrinsic motives can be difficult

Behavioral measures (choice, intensity,

persistence) can be used only when certain that
there is not extrinsic motivation
Physiological measures do not have this precision
yet
Self-reports might disentangle extrinsic from
intrinsic if well designed and people report
honestly

Instrumental Conditioning

External cue provides sign that certain behavior

will result in positive or negative consequence

Classic example

Cage with lever

Animal presses lever
Animal gets food

Extrinsic Motivation external events that alters

likelihood of future behavior

Impact on primary needs (physiological, psychology,

emotional)
Act as intermediate reinforcer (money)

Instrumental Conditioning

Reinforcers

Stimuli or events that make appropriate behavior

more likely to occur in a given situation
Learning what to do

Positive Reinforcer

Stimulus that increases likelihood of future

behavior when presented
Positive stimuli that are presented when behavior
occurs
Money, food, praise, etc.

Instrumental Conditioning

Negative Reinforcer

Stimulus that increases the likelihood of future

behavior when removed
Aversive stimuli that are removed when behavior
occurs
Seat belt chime, alarm clock,

Appropriate behavior allows you to escape or

avoid aversive stimuli

Instrumental Conditioning

Punishers

Stimuli or events that make unappropriate behavior less

likely to occur in a given situation
Learning what NOT to do

Negative Punisher

Stimulus that decreases the likelihood of future behavior

when removed
Aversive stimuli that are presented when behavior occurs
Spanking

Negative punishers are intended to stop unwanted

behaviors
Negative reinforcers are intended to encourage wanted
behaviors

Instrumental Conditioning

Positive Punisher

Stimulus that decreases the likelihood of future behavior

when presented
Positive stimuli that are removed when behavior occurs
Taking away toy,

Positive punishers are intended to stop unwanted behaviors

Some things can be both positive and negative punishers

time-out is taking way freedom (positive punisher) and

might also be aversive (negative punisher)

Effects of Punishment

Short term intended effect of compliance

Long Term Consequences

May lead to other negative consequences (e.g.,

increased aggression, lower quality relations,
etc.)
Studies are mostly correlational in nature

Punishment focuses on what not to do

Need to also teach/reinforce what to do

Instrumental Conditioning

Instrumental vs. Classical Conditioning

Classical learning the association between two

stimuli one stimulus predicts another
Instrumental learning the association between
a behavior and stimulus (consequence)

Effects of Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation

Motivation driven by inherent pleasure associated with

behavior
Motivation driven by external reward for doing behavior

How does using extrinsic motivation influence

intrinsic

Competence & autonomy (and curiosity) will make

children interested in reading, math, etc.
What happens to this motivation if reinforcement or
punishment is applied?

Effects of Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation preferable for many

behaviors

e.g., behaviors that are generally healthy

mental/physical exercise (reading, education, physical
activities, etc.)
No need for external reward (behavior is more consistent)
Intrinsically driven behavior tends to be better

Extrinsic focus on reward not quality of behavior

Intrinsic focus on behavior and learning (improvement),
more creativity

Intrinsically behavior is more enjoyable and fulfilling

Effects of Extrinsic Motivation

Motivational Orientations

Complex behaviors (work, school) often involve

both motivations
Certain tasks are driven by extrinsic and others
by intrinsic

Effects of Extrinsic Motivation

What happens when extrinsic motivation is applied to

behavior that is driven by intrinsic motivation?

Research by Lepper & colleagues

Assess childrens interest in drawing

Identify children who enjoy drawing
These children are either:
Given expected extrinsic reward for drawing
Given unexpected extrinsic reward
Not given extrinsic reward

After reward, children watched to assess intrinsic motivation toward

drawing
Children given expected extrinsic reward drew less than other two
groups

Effects of Extrinsic Motivation

What happens when extrinsic motivation is applied to

behavior that is driven by intrinsic motivation?

Giving extrinsic reward can reduce intrinsic motivation

Initial results in children have been replicated in adults and using a

variety of tasks (e.g., solving puzzles, playing games,)

Under what conditions is intrinsic motivation reduced

Reward must be expected before the behavior (initiate behavior to

obtain the reward)
e.g., clean room and then you can watch TV
Unexpected rewards do not reduce intrinsic motivation

Reward must be tangible money, objects, etc.

Verbal/Social rewards generally do not reduce intrinsic motivation

Effects of Extrinsic Motivation

Can extrinsic reward lead to intrinsic?

Less research in this area but it is possible

Sensation Seeking

Preference for varied, novel, and complex

sensations and experiences and willingness to
take risks

Take test on pp. 344-345 of Franken

Individual difference related to curiosity

Some evidence that this relates to levels of brain
chemicals

High monoamine oxidase which relates to low levels of

Norepinephrine, dopamine & serotonin
Experience greater rewards from pleasant activities that
involve dopamine drugs, sex, food,

Sensation Seeking

Dimensions

Adventure Seeking

Experience Seeking

Travel, friends, activities, things that are unconventional

Disinhibition

Risk involves fear & anxiety success can result in these

increasing pleasure (excitation transfer)

Loosing control

Boredom susceptibility

Creativity

Tendency to generate ideas that can be useful in

solving problems, communicating, and
entertaining

Occurs in all areas of life art, science, sport, etc.

Origins

Not related to intelligence (above minimal level)

Related to individual differences in curiosity (such as
sensation seeking)

Diverse experience allow creativity

Play

Rough-and-tumble Play

Common across all mammals (also birds but less regular)

Females tend to play more with children in most mammals but that may be
different in humans
Common time course across species increases during early juvenile
period, remains elevated, decreases during puberty

Humans approximately 20% of life; dogs 5%

Differs in many ways from aggression suggesting it is not practice for

later aggression

Often linked with exploratory behavior but may be different

Animals & people explore more in novel environment and play less
Stimulants (Ritalin) tend to increase exploratory behavior and decrease
play

Could symptoms of ADHD be avoided with more rough-and-tumble play?

Play

Tickling

Form of pleasure associated with play that helps

encourage play
Sensitive skin areas for tickling (children back
of neck & around ribs

Only sensitive to others - cant tickle yourself

Reducing sensations (anesthesia) does not
diminish desire but does diminish amount (brain is
driver of play, skins sensations help provide
pleasure)

Play

Functions?

Social

Bonding, cooperation, leadership, etc.

Non-social

Physical fitness, coordination, skills, etc.