EMT 272 Semiconductor Fundamentals

SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
PN Junction

Outlines:
Depletion Capacitance
I V Characteristics
Junction Breakdown
Heterojunction

3. Depletion Capacitance

3. Depletion Capacitance
Basically, the junction depletion layer capacitance/area is defined as C j =
dQ/dV, where dQ incremental change in depletion layer/unit area for
an incremental change in the applied voltage dV.
The depletion capacitance/area is given by

W
dQ
W

dQ
Cj

dV

with unit F/cm2.

dQ

(18)

pn junction with
arbitrary impurity
profile under
reverse bias

Change in space
charge
distribution due
to change in
applied bias

Corresponding
change in
electric field
distribution

3.1 Capacitance-Voltage
Characteristics

Eq(18) for depletion capacitance/area is the same as for a parallelplate capacitor, where spacing between two plates represents the
depletion width. Its valid for any arbitrary impurity distribution.
For one-sided abrupt junction, depletion capacitance/area:

W
dQ
W

dQ
Cj

dV

dQ

2(Vbi V )
1

2
q s N B
Cj

(18)
(17)

(19)

EXAMPLE 1
For a silicon one-sided abrupt junction with NA = 2 x 1019 cm-3 and ND =
8 x 1015 cm-3, calculate the junction capacitance at zero bias and
reverse bias of 4V (T=300K)

3.2 Evaluation of
Impurity Distribution

For the p+ - n junction with an arbitrary impurity distribution, the

corresponding charge in applied voltage (shaded area) in next
figure (c) is
2

dV

(20)
(20)

The expression for the impurity concentration at the edge of the

depletion region:

N (W )

qN (W ) dW
2 s

2
q s

2
d 1 / C j / dV

(21)
(21)

For linearly graded junction, the depletion layer capacitance is

s
qa
Cj

W
12
V

V
bi

2
s

1/ 3

(22)
(22)

(a) p+-n junction with an arbitrary impurity distribution. (b) Change in space charge
distribution in the lightly doped side due to a change in applied bias. (c)
corresponding change in the electric-field distribution.

4. IV Characteristics

4. IV Characteristics

By applying voltage to a p-n junction it may disturb the precise

balance between diffusion current & drift current of electrons and holes.

Refer next figure: Forward Bias: the applied voltage reduces the electrostatic potential
across the depletion region (middle figure a). Drift current is reduced in
comparison to the diffusion current - enhanced hole diffusion from pside to n-side and electron diffusion from n-side to p-side.

Reverse Bias: the applied voltage increases the electrostatic potential

across the depletion region (middle figure b). Greatly reduced the
diffusion currents resulting small reverse current.

Note: minority carrier densities at the boundaries (-xp and xn) increase
substantially above their equilibrium values under forward bias and
decrease for reverse bias.

Depletion region

Energy band
diagram

Carrier
distribution

Forward bias

Reverse bias.

4.1 Ideal characteristics

In ideal case, the expression for the built-in potential, Vbi may be
rewrite as

kT p po nno
kT nno

Vbi
ln
ln
2

q ni
q p po

(26)

Where nno and ppo equilibrium electron densities in the n and p sides
respectively

Where the mass action law, carrier concentration nnoppo = ni2

has been used. Rearranging Eq. 26 gives

qVbi
nno n po exp

kT

and

p po

qVbi
p no exp

kT

(27)

Electron & hole density at two boundaries of the depletion region

are related through the electrostatic potential difference Vbi at
thermal equilibrium.

When forward bias, the electrostatic potential difference is reduced

to Vbi VF. While for reverse bias, the electrostatic potential
difference is increased to Vbi + VR. thus the non equilibrium
electron densitiesat for both cases:

q (Vbi V )
nn n p exp

kT

(28)

where nn and np are the nonequilibrium electron densities at the

boundaries of the depletion region in the n and p sides, respectively (+V
forward bias, and V for reverse bias).

For low injection condition, the injected minority carrier

density is much smaller than the majority carrier density nn ~
nno.

Thus the electron density at the boundary of the depletion

region:

n p n po

qV
n po {exp
1}
kT

at x = -xp

(29)

p p p po

qV
p no {exp
1}
kT

at x = xn

(30)

and

The total current is constant throughout the devices and represents

ideal diode equation (Generally for Ge p-n junction):

qV
J J p ( x n ) J n ( x p ) J s exp
1
kT

(31)

Where Js saturation current density, and defined as

Js

qD p p no
Lp

qDn n po
Ln

(31)
(32)
(32)

 In the fonvard direction

with positive bias on the
p-side, for V 3kT/q,
the rate of current
increase is constant.
At 300 K for every
decade change of
current, the voltage
change for an ideal
diode is 60 mV (= 2.3
kT/q).
In the reverse direction,
the current density
saturates at Js.

Ideal current-voltage characteristics. (a) Cartesian plot. (b) Semilog plot.

EXAMPLE 2
Calculate the saturation current density in a Si p-n junction diode. The
parameters of the diode are:
NA, = 5 x l016 cm3, ND, = l016 cm3, ni, = 9.65 x l09 cm3
Dn = 21 cm2/s, Dp =10 cm2/s, n= p = 5 x l0-7 s

4.2 Generation-Recombination
and High Injection Effects

For Si and GaAs p-n junction, the ideal equation (eq. 31) can only give
qualitative agreement because of generation or recombination of carrier in the
depletion region.
For reverse bias case with large values of ni, i.e Ge, the diffusion current
dominates at T = 300K, and the reverse current follows the ideal diode
equation, but if ni <<<, i.e Si and GaAs, the generation current in the
depletion region may dominate, and the total reverse current for p+ - n
junction (for NA >> ND and for VR > 3kT/q):

JR

D p ni2
qniW
q

p ND
g

(33)
(33)

and g generation lifetime, and for simple case, n = p = o,

the rate of electron hole-pair generation, G is

0 vth N t ni
n
i
g
E Ei
2 cosh t

kT

(34)
(34)

For forward bias, concentration of both electrons and holes exceed their
equilibrium values. The carriers will attempt to return to their
equilibrium values by recombination. Therefore, the dominant
generation-recombination processes in the depletion region are the
capture processes.
The total forward current (for pno >> npo, and V > 3kT/q) is

D p ni2
qniW
qV
qV
JF q
exp

exp

p ND
2 r
kT
2kT

(35)
(35)

Generally, the experimental results can be represented empirically by

qV

J F exp
kT
- ideality factor. Ideal diffusion current dominant with = 1,
and for recombination current dominant, = 2.
- When both currents are comparable, has a value of between 1 and 2

(36)
(36)

Next figure is a measurement of forward characteristics of a Si and

GaAs p-n junction at T = 300K. At low current levels, recombination
current dominates and = 2, while at higher current levels, diffusion
current dominates with = 1.

For higher current levels, it increases more gradually with forward

current and caused by two effects: series resistance & high injection.

For series resistance effect: at low- and medium current levels, IR

drop across the neutral regions and it usually compared with kT/q
(I forward current, R series resistance).

This IR drop reduces the bias across the depletion region, the current
becomes

I s exp( qV / kT )
q(V IR )

kT
qIR

exp
kT

I I s exp

(37)

High temp:
diffusion current
dominates, n=1

Low temp:
recombination
current dominates,
n=2

Comparison of the forward current-voltage characteristics of Si and GaAs

diodes at 300 K. Dashed lines indicate slopes of different ideality factors .

4.3 Temperature Effect

REVERSE BIAS:
The ratio of diffusion current to the generation is given by

I diff
I gen

ni L p g
N DW p

(40)

The ratio is proportional to the ni, as the temperature increases, the

diffusion current dominates.

Refer next figure- at low temperature, the generation current

dominates and reverse current varies as (VR)1/2 for an abrupt
junction (i.e W ~ (VR)1/2). As T > 175oC, the current demonstrates a
saturation tendency for VR 3kT/q, at which point the diffusion
current becomes dominates.

Temperature has a profound effect on device performance. Both

forward and reverse case, the magnitude of the diffusion and the
recombination-generation currents depend strongly on temperature.

FORWARD BIAS:
The ratio of hole diffusion current to the recombination is given
by
I diff
2ni L p r
( E g qV )
qV

exp
exp
(38)
I recom N DW p
2kT
2kT

The ratio depends on both temperature and the s/c band gap.

The temperature dependence of saturation current density Js,

for a one sided p+-n junction in which diffusion current
dominates is,

Js

qD p p no
Lp

Eg

n exp
kT
2
i

(39)

Temperature dependence of the currentvoltage characteristics of a Si diode REVERSE BIAS

As the temperature increased,

diffusion current dominates
At low temperature, the
generation current dominates
and reverse current varies.
T > 175oC, the current
demonstrates a saturation
tendency for VR 3kT/q, at
which point the diffusion current
becomes dominates

Temperature dependence of the currentvoltage characteristics of a Si diode

FORWARD BIAS.

As the temperature increased,

diffusion current dominates
At low temperature, the
generation current dominates
The current varies with
temperature

5. Junction Breakdown

5. Junction Breakdown

When large reverse voltage is applied to p-n junction, junction

breakdown and conducts a very large current. Two important
breakdown mechanisms are:
TUNNELING EFFECT and AVALANCHE MULTIPLICATION.

Avalanche breakdown imposes an upper limit on the reverse bias for

most diodes.
Avalanche breakdown limits the 1) the collector voltage of bipolar
transistor and 2) the drain voltage of a MOSFET
Avalanche multiplication mechanisms 1) generate microwave power as
in an IMPATT diode and 2) detect optical signal as in avalanche
photodetector.

5.1 Tunneling Effect

Also known as Zener Effect

High electric field is applied to p-n
junction (in reverse direction), a
valance electron can make the
transition from the VB to the CB
Tunneling process: electron
penetrates through the energy
bandgap. It occurs only if the
electric field is very high.
Typical filed for Si and GaAs 106
V/cm
To achieve high electric field,
doping concentration for both p and
n regions must be > 5 x 1017 cm-3
The breakdown mechanism for Si
and GaAs junction with breakdown
voltages < 4Eg/q.

For breakdown voltages in

excess of 6Eg/q, the breakdown
mechanism is called avalanche
multiplication.
Between those conditions, the
breakdown is mixture both
avalanche and tunneling

5.2 Avalanche
Multiplication

A thermally generated electron in depletion

region (1) gains KE from the electric field.
If the field is sufficiently high, the electron
gain enough KE that on collision with
atom, it break the lattice bond, creating an
electron-hole pair (2 and 2). These newly
created electron and hole acquire KE from
the field and create additional electronhole pair (3 and 3). The continued process
which creating electron-hole pair is called
AVALANCHE MULTIPLICATION

6. Heterojunction

6. Heterojunction

The junction formed between two dissimilar s/cond (have different

energy gap Eg, dielectric permittivity s, work function qs, and
electron affinities qX.
Work function - the energy required to remove an electron from Fermi
level EF to a position just outside the material (the vacuum level).

Electron affinities - the energy required to remove an electron from the

bottom of the conduction band EC to the vacuum level

The difference energy in the two semiconductors of CB and VB

(shown in figure):

Energy band different :

Basic requirements in the construction of energy band diagram

1) EF must be the same at both sides of the interface in thermal
equilibrium
2) Vacuum level must be continuous and parallel to the band edge

Total built in potential, Vbi:

Where

Vbi Vb1 Vb 2

2 N 2 (Vbi V )
Vb1
1 N1 2 N 2

and

Vb 2

1 N1 (Vbi V )

1 N1 2 N 2

Depletion width

x1

2 1 2 o N 2 (Vbi V )
qN1 ( 1 N1 2 N 2 )

x2

2 1 2 o N1 (Vbi V )
qN 2 ( 1 N1 2 N 2 )

Energy band
diagram for
isolated s/cond

Energy band
diagram for ideal
np heterojunction

EXAMPLE 3
Consider an ideal abrupt heterojunction with a built-in potential of 1.6
V. The impurity concentrations in semiconductor 1 and 2 are 1 x 10 16
donors/cm3 and 3 x 1019 acceptors/cm3, and the dielectric constants
are 12 and 13, respectively. Find the electrostatic potential and
depletion width in each material at thermal equilibrium.
At thermal equilibrium, V = 0