CHAPTER 1

THE WORLD
THROUGH
OUR SENSES
1

1.1 SENSORY ORGANS AND THEIR

FUNCTIONS
Sensory organs are used to detect every changes in the
environment.
(a) Sensory organs are possessed by human and all
animals.
(b) Sensory organs allow the body to respond to the
stimuli surroundings. Stimuli from thesurroundings.
Stimuli are changes that happen in the environment.
(c) Sensory organs have receptors that receive the
stimuli and then, send them as impulses to the brain to
be analysed. The brain will then, give a response through
the related effectors.
Examples of effectors are muscles and glands.
2. The sensory organs found in humans are the skin, eyes,
nose, ears and tongue.
1.

3.Table 1.1 shows the stimuli for the sensory organs found
in our body.
2

1.2 The Skin and the Sense of Touch

1. The skin is the outermost layer of the
human body which covers and protects the
human body.
2. The skin is a sensory organs which is
sensitive to touch.
3. The human skin consists of two layers:
(a) The epidermis layer which consists
of dead cells and acts as a protector.
(b) The dermis layer consists of living
cells, blood
vessels, nerves and sweat
glands. The dermisalso has receptors
which are sensitive to head, cold, contact
(touch) and pressure.
4. Receptors are the ends of the nerves
which are very sensitive to stimuli.
4

5. Each receptor is connected to a nerve. When

stimulated, it sends a nerve signal known as an
impluse to the brain to be interpreted.
6. Pain receptors are the closest to the skin
surface. This is followed by touch receptors, heat
receptors and cold receptors. Pressure receptors
lie deep down in the adipose tissue beneath the
dermis layer.
7. Different parts of the skin have different levels
and sensitivity. The skin sensitivity depends on:
(a) The depth of receptors in the skin. The
palms of our hands, the lips and the neck
moresensitve than the soles of our feet.
(b) How close together the receptors are. The
parts of the skin which have receptors close to one
another are more sensitive.
5

1.3 The Nose and the Sense of

1. The nose is a sensory organ which is sensitive to
smell.

Smell

2. The cavity of the nose is lined by 2 types of cells:

(a) Glandular cells which secrete slime ( muscus ).
(b) Cells of the smell receptors.
3. The cells of the smell receptors are found on the upper
part of the nasal cavity, which areconnected to the nerve
endings that in turn convey smell impulses to the brain.
4. Chemical substances, inhaled through the nose,
dissolve in the mucus and stimulate the sensor cells of
smell. Then, impulses are sent to the brain through the
nerves to be interpreted.
5. When we have flu, the thick layer of mucus in the nose
hinders these sensory cells from being stimulated and we
are then, unable to smell as usual.
7

6. Hair and mucus in the nasal cavity

function to filter dust from the air so that
only clean air can enter the lungs.
7. The sensivity of smell of animals such as
cats, rats and dogs is greater than that of
humans, which isrelatively quite weak.
8

1.4 The Tongue and Sense

of Taste
1. The tongue is the sensory organ for taste. It can
detect salt, sour, sweet and bitter tastes.
2. There are small bumps on the surface of the tongue
known as taste buds.
3. The taste buds are cells which are sensitive to
taste.
4. Different parts of the tongue have different tastes.

5. Most food have the combination of all types of tastes.

6. When we eat, the chemical substances from the food
dissolve in the saliva and stimulate the taste buds.
7. Then, the receptors on the taste buds send impulses to the
brain to be interpreted.
8. Our taste and smell sensory organs help us to feel the
palatability of food. This is because the
mouth cavity and nose cavity are connected. Therefore, the
taste and smell of food can beexperienced at the same time.
9. When the nose is pinched while eating, the palatability of
the food that is being eaten cannot betasted.
10. When someone is having a flu, the taste of food cannot be
detected because too much of mucusblock the sensory cells.
10

1.6 The Ears and the Sense of

Hearing and Balance
1. The ears are the sensory organs for hearing
and are sensitive to sound.
2.

The human ear is divided into three parts:

(a) Outer ear - filled with air
(b) Middle ear - filled with air
(c) Inner ear - filled with fluid

3. Each part of the ear has its own function as

shown in Table 1.3.

11

12

13

4. The hearing mechanism:

(a) The earlobe collects and directs sound waves into the
eardrum through the
ear canal.
(b) The eardrum vibrates and the sound vibration in tranferred
to the ear bones (ossicle).
(c) The ossicles strenghen these vibrations snd convey them
to the oval
window.
(d) The vibrations of the oval window cause the fluid in the
cochlea to produce nerve impulses.
(e) The nerve impulses are sent to the brain by the auditory
nerve to be interpreted.
5. The ear as a balancing organ:
(a) Apart from functioning as a hearing organ, the ear also
controls the balance of the body.
(b) Any bodily movements will stimulate the receptors in the
semicircular canals to produce impulses.
(c) The brain will interpret these impulses and direct the
muscles to respond and to balance up the body.
14

1.7 SENSE OF SIGHT

15

 The eye is the sensory organ of sight and

responds to light.

16

 Changes in the size of the pupil under

different situations.

17

The sight mechanism

1. Light is reflected off an object into our eyes.
2. The light travels through the pupil and the eye
lens.
3. Finally the light is focused onto the retina.
4. The image formed on the retina is real, inverted
and smaller than the object.
5. The optic nerve then sends the nerve impulses
from the retina to the brain. The brain interprets the
image as upright.
18

6. The formation of an image on the retina of the eye to the

stage where we can see is summarised inFigure.

19

7. The condition of the eye lens looking at near and

distant objects is shown below :

20

8. The flow chart below summarises the route

of light rays from the object entering the eye.

21

LIGHT AND
SIGHT
Characteristics of light
Reflection of light
1. Light rays are reflected by an opaque surface.
2. A smooth and shiny opaque surface, like a plane mirror, reflects nearly
the light rays that fall on it.
3. According to the Law of Reflection,
(a) the incident ray, reflected ray and the normal are all on the same
plane.
(b) the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

22

all

4. The Law of Reflection is obeyed only if the parallel light rays

fall onto a uniform surface. Thereflected light rays are also
parallel and in order.
5. If the parallel light rays fall on a non-uniform rough surface,
the reflected light rays will not beparallel or in order but
dispersed.
6. The knowledge of the reflection of light is used in the following
instruments :
7. (a)
the periscope
- usedwhen
in submarines
to see
the situation
The light
ray is reflected
it is directed
towards
the plane
on
the surface
of the sea. of the
mirror.
The characteristics
(b)
kaleidoscope
produces
image
formed are -as
follows :attractive patterns of small
objects
it.
(a) in
virtual
( cannot be formed on a screen ).
(b) vertical.
(c) of the same size as the object.
(d) the distance of the image behind the mirror is the same as
the distance of
the object in front ofthe mirror.
(e) laterally inverted.
23

Refraction of light
1. Refraction of light takes place when light travels through two different
media with different
densities at an angle.
2. The speed of light changes when it moves from one medium to another
with a different density which causes the light to be refracted (bent).
3. The following shows the three situations of the movement of light rays
through two different media.

24

25

4. The following examples shows how light travels from

one medium to another with differentdensities.

26

5. Daily phenomena of refraction of light are

shown below :

27

Eye defects

28

Short-sightedness

3. The defect may be caused by

(a) abnormally long eyeballs.
(b) eye lens that are abnormally thick. this happens because
the ciliary muscles are weak
and areunable to make the eye lens
thinner.
4. The defect can be corrected by wearing concave lenses
( diverging lenses ).
5. A concave lens divergas the light rays before they enter the eye.
29

Long-sightedness

30

1. A long-sighted person can see distant objects clearly but near

objects appear blur.
2. Long sightedness occurs because the image of a near objects
falls behind the retina.
3. The defect may be caused by
(a) abnormally short eyeballs.
(b) eye lens that are abnormally thin. This happens because the
ciliary muscles are weak and areunable to make the eye lens
thicker.
4. The defect can be corrected by using convex lenses ( converging
lenses ).
5. A convex lens converges the light rays before they enter the eye.

31

Summary of short-sightedness and long-sightedness

and correction of defects

32

Astigmatism

1. Astigmatism is caused by the irregular curvature of the cornea.

2. All the light rays from an object do not meet at a point on the
retina. On the other hand, some lightrays are focused on the retina
while others are focused either in front or behind the retina.
3. In many cases, astigmatism causes blurred vision for either near
or distant objects.

4. To correct astigmatism, the optician recommends cylindrical lenses

33
( asymmetrical lens ).

Limitation of the sense of sight

Optical illusion
1. Sometimes what we see may not appear to be the real thing. This is because
the brain cannot interpret accurately what is actually seen by the eye.
2. This limitation of the sense of sight is known as optical illusion ( confusion of
the brain ).

34

Blind spot

35

Stereoscopic vision and monocular vision

Stereoscopic vision
1. Stereoscopic vision is vision involving both eyes.
2. The brain will combine the vision from both eyes to from both eyes to from a threedimensional image.
3. This enables us to estimate distances accurately.
4. The stereoscopic field of vision is narrow.
5. Predators usually have stereoscopic vision.

36

Monocular vision
1. Monocular vision is vision involving one eye only. This makes estimating distances
accurately difficult.
2. Monocular vision produces a flat image.
3. The monocular field of vision is wide.
4. Preys usually have monocular vision.

37

Comparison between stereoscopic vision and

monocular vision

38

Use of optical instruments

1. Optical instruments can be used to help overcome the limitations of
the sense of sight.
2. The microscope is an optical instrument which helps us see fine and
small objects.
3. The telescope and binoculars are optical instruments that help us see
distant objects.
4. The periscope is used in submarines to see above the sea level.
5. X-ray machines enable us to observe our bodies' internal organs.
6. A special machine called the ultrasonic scanner can produce an image
of a foetus in a pregnant woman's womb on a screen.

39

40

SOUND AND HEARING

Production of Sound
1. Vibrations produce sound :
(a) Sound is a form of energy produced by vibration.
(b) When an object vibrates, the kinetic energy from the object is converted into sound
energy.
(c) Vibrating objects that produce sound are :
i. Musical instuments such as guitar, voilin and drum when played.
ii. A tuning fork when knocked.
iii. Air at the mount of a tube containing water when blown.
iv. The tissues in our vocal cords vibrate when we talk.
v. Sound produced by animals when their limbs are moved :
- Vibrations of the wings of bees and mosquitoes produce sound.
- Grasshoppers produce sound when their hind legh are brushing against their
wings, causing their wings to vibrate.

41

Transfer of Sound
1. Sound can be transferred from one place to another through a medium.
2. Sound can move through a solid, a liquid or a gas. Sound is transferred
through the air when we listen to someone talking.
3. Sound moves fastest through solid, followed by liquid and slowest through
a vacuum as there are no particles in a vacuum.
4. The arrangement of particles in matter influence the transfer of sound.
Compact arrangement of particles in a solid enables the vibration to be
transferred quickly.
5. Particles in a gas are very far apart from each other. Therefore, the transfer
of vibration is not efficient.

42

The reflection and absorption of sound

1. When sound waves are blocked by an object, they may be reflected or
absorbed by the object.
2. An object which has hard and smooth surfaces is a good sound reflector.
Examples : Plank, glass, metal.
3. Reflected sound is known as an echo. Echo does not occur in a small room
because sound is reflected very quickly.
4. An object which has soft and rough surfaces is a good sound absorber.
Therefore, soft materias are normally used reduce echo especially in a hall.
Actions to reduce echo are :
(a) The floor of a hall is covered by carpets.
(b) Soft cushions and curtains are put in a hall or big room.
(c) The walls are lined by sponge or cardboard punched with holes.

43

5. Some equipments are invented using the principle of

echo to benefit mankind.

6. Echo is used to prevent ships from colliding with rocks

under the sea. Echo is also used to trace fishes in the
ocean and to determine the depth of the ocean.

44

Hearing Defect
1. The most common hearing defects are the inability to detect sound and the
difficulty of hearing withease.
2. Deafness may be caused by several factors :
(a) Damage of the ossicles.
(b) Damage of the eardrums.
(c) Damage of the cochlea.
(d) Damage of the auditory nerve.
3. Bacterial or viral infections and high fever may lead to damage of the inner ear.
4. Long exposure to loud sound may increase the chance of becoming deaf.

45

5. Some of the hearing limitations can be corrected by using modern devices.

(a) Hearing aids can be used to help people with hearing problems.
(b) Surgery can be carried out to replace damaged ossicles and to repair
damaged eardrums.
(c) Implantation of electronic gadgets into the ears can help deaf people to
hear again.
6. Nonetheless, a severe damage of the auditory nerves cannot be corrected.
7. Looking after the ears :
(a) Prevent the ears from being exposed to loud sound, especially while
listening to music.
(b) Avoid digging the ears with sharp objects.
(c) Avoid from inflicting tight slaps onto the ears.
(d) Clean up the ears with cotton buds regularly so that the ear canal is not
blocked.

46

Limitations of the Sense of Hearing

1. The range of hearing frequency.
(a) Human beings :
i. The human ear can only detect sound between a frequency range of
20Hz to 20 000 Hz.
ii. The rearing range differs from one individual to another.
- It is harder for old people to hear because their eardrums are less
elastic.
- For individuals who are exposed to continues sound pollution like
loud sound of vehicles or machines, their ability to hear will decrease.
(b) Animals :
i. Some animals can detect the ultrasonic frequencies that humans are
not able to. The ultrasonic frequencies are sound with frequencies exceeding 20
000 Hz.
ii. The range of hearing frequency for several animals is shown in the
following table.

47

2. Devices to overcome the hearing

limitations

48

3. Stereophonic hearing
(a) Hearing by using both sides of the ears is known as
stereophonic hearing.
(b) Stereophonic hearing allows us to determine the direction
of sound accurately.
i. A sound coming from the right side will stimulate the
right ear first.
ii. The sound waves will then, reach the left ear. the
impulses are sent to the brain to beinterpreted earlier than the
left ear.
iii. The right ear will hear the sound louder than the left ear.
iv. The differences in the loudness or speed of the sound
that reaches the ears allows
us todetermine the direction or the
source of sound.
(c) Stereophonic hearing is important to humans and animals
because it can help to
determine thedirection or source of a
sound. This is important because :
i. It can help avoid danger such as enemies, predators or
moving vehicles.
ii. It can help animals to obtain their food. 49

STIMULI AND RESPONSE IN PLANTS

1. Plants can detect and respond to stimuli around them.
2. The response by plants to stimuli is called tropism.
3. There are two types of tropism :
(a) Positive tropism - response by plants toward s the stimulus.
(b) negative tropism - response by plants away from the stimulus.
4. Plants respond to light, gravity and water. there are also plants that respond to
the stimulus of touch.
5. The tropic movements are importants to plants because these movements
help the plants get necessities like light and water and minerals. This enables
plants to grow healthily.

50

51

6. Examples of tropic responses and nastic

movement are given as follows :

52

53

7. Tropic differences between the responses of

the plant shoots and plant roots are given below.

54