Computers

In
Management

- K. K. Singh
 Evolution of the Computer
• The first counting device was the abacus, originally from Asia.
• 1600s: John Napier discovers logarithms.
• 1642: Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician and philosopher, invents
the first mechanical digital calculator using gears, called the
Pascaline. Although this machine could perform addition and
subtraction on whole numbers, it was too expensive and only Pascal
himself could repair it.

• 1804: Joseph Marie Jacquard used punch cards to automate a weaving loom.
• 1812: Charles P. Babbage, the "father of the computer",
discovered that many long calculations involved many
similar, repeated operations. Therefore, he designed a
machine, the difference engine which would be steam-
powered, fully automatic and commanded by a fixed
instruction program. In 1833, Babbage quit working on
this machine to concentrate on the analytical engine.

• 1840s: Augusta Ada. "The first programmer" suggested that a binary system
should be used for storage rather than a decimal system.

• 1850s: George Boole developed Boolean logic which would

later be used in the design of computer circuitry.
• 1890: Dr. Herman Hollerith introduced the first electromechanical, punched-
card data-processing machine which was used to compile information for the
1890 U.S. census. Hollerith's tabulator became so successful that he started his
own business to market it. His company would eventually become International
Business Machines (IBM).
• 1906: The vacuum tube is invented by American physicist Lee De Forest.
• 1939: Dr. John V. Atanasoff and his assistant Clifford Berry build the first
electronic digital computer.
• 1941, Konrad Zuse, from Germany, introduced the first programmable
computer designed to solve complex engineering equations. This machine,
called the Z3, was also the first to work on the binary system instead of the
decimal system.
• 1944: Howard Aiken, in collaboration with engineers from IBM, constructed a
large automatic digital sequence-controlled computer called the Harvard Mark
I. This computer could handle all four arithmetic opreations, and had special
built-in programs for logarithms and trigonometric functions.
• 1945: Dr. John von Neumann presented a paper outlining the stored-program
concept.
• 1947: The giant ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator and Calculator)
machine was developped by John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, Jr. at the
University of Pennsylvania. It used 18, 000 vacuums, punch-card input,
weighed thirty tons and occupied a thirty-by-fifty-foot space. It wasn't
programmable but was productive from 1946 to 1955 and was used to
compute artillery firing tables. That same year, the transistor was invented by
William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain of Bell Labs. It would rid
computers of vacuum tubes and radios.
Generations Time Frame Descriptive Type of Inventor
Term Computer

First Generation
1951-1959 Vacuum Mainframes Lee De
Tubes Forest

Second Generation
1959-1965 Transistor Mainframes William
Shockley

Third Generation
1965-1971 Integrated Mainframes Jack Kilby,
Circuit Minicomputers Robert
Noyce

Fourth Generation
1971-today Microproc- Mainframes Ted Hoff
essor Microcomputers
 Classification of computers on basis of capacity and size

Super computer

• The biggest in size,

the most expensive
in price than any other
is classified and known
as super computer.
• It can process trillions of
instructions in seconds.
• This computer is not used as a PC in a home neither by a
student in a college.
• Governments specially use this type of computer for their
different calculations and heavy jobs.
• Different industries also use this huge computer for designing
their products.
• In most of the Hollywoods movies it is used for animation
purposes.
• This kind of computer is also helpful for forecasting weather
reports worldwide.
 Mainframes
• Another giant in computers
after the super computer is
Mainframe, which can also
process millions of instructions
per second and is capable of
accessing billions of data.
• This computer is commonly
used in big hospitals, air line
reservation companies, and many
other huge companies prefer
mainframe because of its capability of retrieving data on a huge
basis.
• This is normally to expensive and out of reach from a salary-
based person who wants a computer for his home. This kind of
computer can cost thousands of dollars.
 Minicomputer
• This computer is next
in line but offers less
than mainframe in
work and performance.
• These are the computers
which are mostly preferred by the small
type of business personals, colleges, etc.
 Personal Computers
• Almost all the computer users are familiar with the
personal computers.
• They normally know what the personal computer is
and what are its functions.
• This is the computer mostly preferred by the home
users.
• These computers are lesser in cost than the
computers given above and also, small in size; they
are also called PCs in short for Personal computers.
• This computer is small in size and you can easily
arrange it to fit in your single bedroom with its all
accommodation.
• Today this is thought to be the most popular
computer in all.
 Notebook Computers
• Having a small size and
low weight the notebook
is easy to carry to
anywhere.
• A student can take it with
him/her to his/her school
in his/her bag with his/her book.
• This is easy to carry around
and preferred by students and
business people to meet their
assignments and other necessary
tasks.
• The approach of this computer is also the same as the
Personal computer.
• It can store the same amount of data and having a memory of
the same size as that of a personal computer.
• One can say that it is the replacement of personal desktop
computer.
 Input Devices
Keyboard

• A keyboard is the main input device for text and

commands.
• The computer keyboard
uses the same key
arrangement as typewriters
but also contains standard
function keys, such as
the escape, cursor movement,
and control keys.
• If you are planning to type at a computer for long
periods of time, you might consider purchasing an
ergonomic keyboard.
Mouse

• A mouse is an input
device that sits on
the work surface
beside the computer.
• The computer user pushes the mouse
across the work surface to point to a
place on a display screen and to select
one or more actions to take from that
position.
Bar code reader

• A barcode reader
(or barcode scanner)
is an electronic device
for reading printed barcodes.
• Like a flatbed scanner, it consists of a light
source, a lens and a photo conductor
translating optical impulses into electrical
ones.
• Additionally, nearly all barcode readers
contain decoder circuitry analyzing the
barcode's image data provided by the
photo conductor and sending the
barcode's content to the scanner's output
port.
Graphics tablet

• A graphics tablet
(or digitizing tablet,
graphics pad, drawing
tablet) is a computer
input device that allows one
to hand-draw images and graphics, similar to the way one
draws images with a pencil and paper. These tablets may
also be used to capture data of handwritten signatures.
• A graphics tablet (also called pen pad) consists of a flat
surface upon which the user may "draw" an image using an
attached stylus, a pen-like drawing apparatus. The image
generally does not appear on the tablet itself but, rather, is
displayed on the computer monitor.
• Some tablets are intended as a general replacement for a
mouse as the primary pointing and navigation device for
desktop computers.
 Digital Camera
• A digital camera is a camera that takes video or still
photographs, or both, digitally by recording images on a
light-sensitive sensor.
• Many compact digital still cameras can record sound and
moving video as well as still photographs.
• Digital cameras can include features that are not found in
film cameras, such as displaying an image on the camera's
screen immediately after it is recorded, the capacity to take
thousands of images on a single small memory device, the
ability to record video with sound, the ability to edit
images, and deletion of images allowing re-use of the
storage they occupied.
• Digital cameras are incorporated into many devices ranging
from mobile phones (called camera phones) to vehicles.
• A digital camera records and stores photographic images in
digital form. The images can be fed to a computer as they
are recorded or stored in the camera for later loading into a
computer.
 Scanner
• A scanner captures images (black and
white or color) from photos, posters,
or magazine pages for computer
editing and display.
• Scanners usually come with software
that allows you to resize and modify a
captured image.
• Scanners also can be used to convert
text on printed pages into editable
computer files.
• In computing, a scanner is a device that optically scans
images, printed text, handwriting, or an object, and
converts it to a digital image.
• Common examples found in offices are variations of the
desktop (or flatbed) scanner where the document is placed
on a glass window for scanning.
 Output Devices
Monitor/ VDU

• A monitor (also called display,

CRT, or screen) is a computer
display that is separate from
other parts of the computer.
• Like a TV monitor, a computer
monitor image is made up of pixels (dots).
• Faster refresh rates are easier on the eyes
and allow you to sit in front of the
computer for longer periods of time.
 Printer
• A computer printer, or more commonly a
printer, is a computer peripheral which produces
a hard copy (permanent human-readable text
and/or graphics) of documents stored in electronic
form, usually on physical print media such as
paper or transparencies.
• Many printers are primarily used as local
peripherals, and are attached by a printer cable
or, in most newer printers, a USB cable to a
computer which serves as a document source.
• Some printers, commonly known as network
printers, have built-in network interfaces
(typically wireless or Ethernet), and can serve as
a hardcopy device for any user on the network.
• Individual printers are often designed to support
both local and network connected users at the
same time.
 1.Dot Matrix Printer
• The dot matrix printer is an impact printer.
• It works like
an automatic
typewriter.
• It is a low-cost printer with low quality
output.
• Because it is an impact printer, it may be
used when carbon copies of a document
are required.
• The speed is usually 30 - 550 characters
per second (cps).
 How it works
• This has a print head that travels across the paper.
• The head has a set of pins which are pushed out to form the shape of each
character
• The pins hit an ink ribbon against the paper as the print head moves along.
• An animation showing how head of a 21 pin dot-matrix printer moves across the
paper, firing the pins that strike the ink against the paper.Uses:
• Limited to situations where carbon copies are needed and the quality is not too
important.
• Typical uses might be in warehouses where duplicate copies of orders need to
produced quickly and cheaply.
• Disadvantages:
• The printing quality is low - these printers produce low to medium quality black
and white printing and can only print low resolution graphics.
• Because of the impact of the pins against the paper, these printers can be quite
noisy.
• Advantages:
• The purchase cost is low and the running costs are very low.
• They can print fairly quickly, particularly if you remember that multiple copies are
being printed in one print run.
• They are robust and can operate in harsh environments.
• If several sheets of self-carbonating paper are placed into the printer then the
impact will produce multiple copies.
 2. Inkjet Printer
• The ink jet printer is a
non impact printer.
• The ink jet sprays ink
from an ink cartridge
at very close range to
the paper as it rolls by.
• This is a low-cost printer with a mid quality
output.
• This type of printer is the most economical for
color output.
 How it works
• The print head contains tiny nozzles through which
different colored inks can be sprayed onto the paper to
form the characters or the graphic images.
• The ink is forced out by heat or by tiny piezoelectric
crystals which change shape when an electric current is
applied across them.

• Uses:A popular choice for home and school use where

small amounts of printing are done and colour printing is
only occasionally needed.

• Disadvantages:The ink cartridges can be expensive so

running costs can be high.
• The printing speed is slow compared to a laser printer.

• Advantages:These printers are relatively inexpensive

and produce high quality black and white or colour
printing.
 3. Laser Printer
• The laser printer uses a
laser beam reflected from
a mirror to attract ink
(called toner) to selected
paper areas as a sheet rolls
over a drum.
• A laser printer is the most
expensive type of printer with
the best output.
• A laser printer is a common
type of computer printer that
rapidly produces high quality
text and graphics on plain
paper.
 How it works
• These print in the same way as photocopiers.
• The powdered ink (toner), is transferred to the paper and then
fixed by heat and pressure.
• A school or business printer would have a typical speed of 10
to 20 pages per minute (ppm).

• Uses: Common wherever fast, high quality printing is required.

• Disadvantages: Non-color laser printers are more

expensive than ink-jet printers.
• Color laser printers are considerably more expensive. (but
their speed and high quality output means they are becoming
more popular).

• Advantages: They are quiet and fast and produce high

quality printouts.
• Running cost are low because although toner cartridges are
expensive to replace, they last a long time.
 Compaq Disk
• Some compact disks can be used
to put information on. This is
called burning information to a
CD.

• NOTE: A CD can also be an input

device.
 Disk Drives

• A disk drive is used to record

information from the computer
onto a floppy disk or CD.
 Floppy Disk
• A floppy disk is used to record
information on. The information
is stored on the floppy disk and
can be used later or used on
another computer.
 Headphones
• Headphones give sound output
from the computer.
• They are similar to speakers,
except they are worn on the ears
so only one person can hear the
output at a time.
 RAM
• The first type of random access memory was the magnetic core memory
, developed in 1951, and used in all computers up until the development
of the static and dynamic RAM integrated circuits in the late 1960s and
early 1970s.
• Main memory, also known as RAM (Random Access Memory).
• When people talk about computer memory, they usually mean the
volatile RAM memory.
• Physically this memory consists of some integrated circuit chips, either
on the motherboard or on a small circuit board attached to the
motherboard.
• A computer’s motherboard is designed in a manner that its memory
capacity can be easily enhanced by adding more memory chips.
• Hence if you decide to have more memory than your computer currently
has, you can buy more memory chips and plug them in the empty
memory slots on the motherboard.
• Random access means that locations in the memory can be written to or
read from in any order, regardless of the memory location that was last
accessed.
• RAM categorized in two parts;

– Static Random Access Memory (SRAM)

– Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM)
 Static Random Access Memory
• Static random access memory (SRAM) is
a type of semiconductor memory where the
word static indicates that it, unlike
• Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM),
does not need to be periodically refreshed,
as SRAM uses bi stable latching circuitry to
store each bit.

• Applications: SRAM is a little more

expensive, but faster and significantly less
power hungry (especially idle) than DRAM.
• It is therefore used where either speed or
low power, or both, are principle
considerations.
 Dynamic Random Access Memory
• Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) is a type of
random access memory that stores each bit of data in a
separate capacitor within an integrated circuit.
• Since real capacitors leak charge, the information eventually
fades unless the capacitor charge is refreshed periodically.
• Because of this refresh requirement, it is a dynamic memory
as opposed to SRAM and other static memory.
• The advantage of DRAM is its structural simplicity: only one
transistor and a capacitor are required per bit, compared to
six transistors in SRAM.
• This allows DRAM to reach very high density. Like SRAM, it is
in the class of volatile memory devices, since it loses its data
when the power supply is removed.
• Unlike SRAM however, data may still be recovered for a short
time after power-off.
 ROM
• Read only memory is a non volatile memory chip, in
which data is stored permanently and cannot be
altered by the programmer.
• Storing data permanently into this kind of memory
is called “burning in the data”.
• The data stored in a ROM chip can only be read and
used – it cannot be changed.
• Since ROM chips are non-volatile, the data stored
inside a ROM are not lost, when the power supply is
switched off, unlike the case of a volatile RAM chip.
• ROMs are mainly used to store programs and data,
which do not change and are frequently used.
• ROM categorized in following parts;
– PROM
– EPROM
– EEPROM
 PROM
• A programmable read-only memory
(PROM) or field programmable read-
only memory (FPROM) is a form of
digital memory where the setting of each
bit is locked by a fuse or antifuse.
• Such PROMs are used to store programs
permanently.
• The key difference from a strict ROM is
that the programming is applied after the
device is constructed.
• They are frequently seen in
video game consoles, or such products as
electronic dictionaries, where PROMs for
different languages can be substituted.
 EPROM
• An EPROM, or Erasable Programmable Read-O
nly Memory, is a type of computer memory chip
that retains its data when its power supply is
switched off. In other words, it is non-volatile. It is
an array of floating-gate transistors individually
programmed by an electronic device that supplies
higher voltages than those normally used in
electronic circuits. Once programmed, an EPROM
can be erased only by exposing it to strong
ultraviolet light. That UV light usually has a
wavelength of 235nm (for optimum erasure time)
and belongs to the UVC range of UV light. EPROMs
are easily recognizable by the transparent
fused quartz window in the top of the package,
through which the silicon chip can be seen, and
which permits UV light during erasing.
 EEPROM
• EEPROM (also written E2PROM and pronounced e-
e-prom or simply e-squared), which stands for
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only
Memory, is a type of non-volatile memory used in
computers and other electronic devices to store
small amounts of data that must be saved when
power is removed, e.g., calibration tables or device
configuration.
• When larger amounts of static data are to be stored
(such as in USB flash drives) a specific type of
EEPROM such as flash memory is more economical
than traditional EEPROM devices.
• EEPROMs are realized as arrays of
floating-gate transistors.
Cache Memory
Hard Disk
Number Systems
Thank you