Sensors &

Transducers

CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER:
In capacitive transduction transducers the measurand is converted to
a change in the capacitance.
A typical capacitor is comprised of two parallel plates of
conducting material separated by an electrical insulating material
d
called a dielectric. The plates and the dielectric may be either
flattened or rolled.
The purpose of the dielectric is to help the two parallel plates
Area=A
maintain their stored electrical charges.
The relationship between the capacitance and the size of capacitor
plate, amount of plate separation, and the dielectric is given by
C = 0 r A / d
d is the separation distance of plates (m)
Either A, d or can be
C is the capacitance (F, Farad)
varied.
0 : absolute permittivity of vacuum
r : relative permittivity
A is the effective (overlapping) area of capacitor plates (m2)

Contd
Forms of Capacitance Transducers

Rotary plate capacitor

Rectilinear Capacitance
Transducer
Thin diaphragm

43

Contd

Rotary plate capacitor:

The
capacitance
of
this
unit
proportional to the amount of the fixed
plate that is covered, that shaded by
moving plate. This type of transducer
will
give
sign
proportional
to
curvilinear displacement or angular
velocity.

44

Contd
Rectilinear capacitance
transducer:
It consists of a fixed
cylinder and a moving
cylinder. These pieces
are configured so the
moving piece fits inside
the fixed piece but
insulated from it.
45

Contd
Thin diaphragm:
A transducer that varies
the spacing between
surfaces. The dielectric is
either air or vacuum.
Often used as Capacitance
microphones.

46

Contd
Advantages:
1. Has excellent frequency response
2. Can measure both static and dynamic phenomena.
Disadvantages:
1. Sensitivity to temperature variations
2. the possibility of erratic or distortion signals owing to
long lead length
Applications:
1. As frequency modulator in RF oscillator
2. In capacitance microphone
3. Use the capacitance transducer in an ac bridge circuit
47

Piezoelectric transducer
A piezoelectric transducer is a device that uses the
piezoelectric effect, to measure changes in pressure,
acceleration, strain or force by converting them to an electrical
charge. The prefix piezo- is Greek for 'press' or 'squeeze'.
It represents the property of a number of crystalline material
that causes the crystal to develop an electric charge when
subjected to mechanical forces or stresses along specified
planes.
The magnitude and polarity of the induced charge on crystal
surface is proportional to magnitude and direction of the
applied force.
Q=KF where Q= charge in coulumb; F= force in newtons; K is
crystal sensitivity.

 The materials used for the measurement purpose

should posses desirable properties like stability, high
output, insensitive to the extreme temperature and
humidity and ability to be formed or machined into
any shape.
Quartz, which is a natural crystal, is highly stable but
the output obtained from it is very small. It also
offers the advantage of measuring very slowly varying
parameter as they have very low leakage when they
are used with high input impedance amplifiers.
Rochelle salt, a synthetic crystal, gives the highest
output amongst all the materials exhibiting
piezoelectric effect.

Piezoelectric
Transducer

Advantages of Piezoelectric Transducers

1) High frequency response: They offer very high frequency response that
means the parameter changing at very high speeds can be sensed easily.
2) High transient response: The piezoelectric transducers can detect the
events of microseconds and also give the linear output.
3) High output: They offer high output that be measured in the electronic
circuit.
4) The piezoelectric transducers are small in size and have rugged
construction.
Limitations of Piezoelectric Transducers
1) Output is low: The output obtained from the piezoelectric transducers is
low, so external electronic circuit has to be connected.
2) High impedance: The piezoelectric crystals have high impedance so they
have to be connected to the amplifier and the auxiliary circuit, which have the
potential to cause errors in measurement. To reduce these errors amplifiers
high input impedance and long cables should be used.
3) Forming into shape: It is very difficult to give the desired shape to the
crystals with sufficient strength.

Applications of the Piezoelectric Transducers

1) The piezoelectric transducers are more useful for the
dynamic measurements, i.e. the parameters that are changing
at the fast rate. Thus piezoelectric crystals are primarily used
measurement of quantities like surface roughness, and also in
accelerometers and vibration pickups.
2) For the same reasons they can be used for studying high
speed phenomenon like explosions and blast waves. They
are also used in aerodynamic shock tube work and
seismograph (used for measurement of acceleration and
vibration in rockets).
3) Many times the piezo sensors or transducers are used
along with the strain gauges for measurement of force, stress,
vibrations, etc.
4) The automotive companies used piezoelectric transducers
to detect detonations in the engine blocks.
5) Piezoelectric transducers are used in medical treatment,
sono-chemistry and industrial processing equipments for
monitoring the power.

Photo Electric Transducers

These transducers operate on the principle that when
light strikes special combination of materials, a voltage
may develop, a resistance change may occur or
electrons may flow.
Photo electric cells are used for a variety of purposes
in control engineering for precision devices, solar
batteries as source of power for rockets and satellites.
These are grouped in to
Photo Emissive
Photo conductive
Photovoltaic cells.

Photo Emissive Transducer

These transducers work on photo emissive effect.
When certain types of materials are exposed to light,
electrons are emitted and a current flow is produced.
A vacuum device, because the photo emissive material is
one that oxidizes instantly and violently in contact with air.
The photo emissive action is the release of electrons in to the
surrounding vacuum when the material is stuck by light.
The light sensitive photo cathode may consist of very thin film
of cesium deposited on to oxidized nickel base.
Light strikes the cathode causing emission of electrons
towards anode. This produces flow of current being a function
of radiant energy striking cathode.

 3 types of emissive cells:

High vacuum single cathode
Gas filled
Multiplier tubes
The high vacuum and gas filled
are both diodes in which cathode
and anode are placed in a glass
or quartz envelope which is either
evacuated or filled with inert gas.
In multiplier tubes a series of reflecting electrodes called
dynodes which are used to amplify the original output
current.
The dynodes are so arranged that the electrons striking a
dynode produce further electron emission from dynode.

Photo Conductive Transducer

These are variable resistor transducer operates on a principle
of photo conductivity.
Some special type of semiconductors change their resistance
when exposed to light.
A photoconductive cell consists of a thin transparent surface
film of some metal, which is placed on thin layer of
semiconductor like selenium, which in turn is placed over a
metal layer of iron.
A high potential difference is applied
across surface film and iron layer.
When light of suitable frequency falls
on the transparent film, the electrical resistance of selenium
layer decreases. This changes the current flowing in the circuit.

Photo- voltaic
Transducer
When light strikes a junction of certain dissimilar metals a
potential difference is built up.
In the picture, you see the normal state of a PV cell and the
voltage it produces. In a PV cell on which there is no light, (+)
and (-) poles seem to be in balance.
If you look at the second picture (Picture 2) it can be
observed that on the PV cell which has light on it the (-) pole
intensity increases and as a result of this there is also an
increase in the voltage in the voltmeter. The photons in the
light cause the number of electrons on the silicon surface to
increase by activating them; this causes the two poles to
generate electricity.

 The output is low and is not linear function of

light intensity.
Photo-voltaic unit is self generated and requires
no voltage source to operate it.
Common application of photo=voltaic transducer
is in light exposure meter in photographic work.

Photo emissive
Photoconductive
Photovoltaic transducer
Transducer
transducer
1. When the cathode of When
the When the radiations fall
photo emissive cell is photoconductive
on a photovoltaic cell, it
subjected to radiations, it semiconductor element is generates
a
voltage
emits electrons. These subjected to radiations, its whose
value
is
electrons increase the resistance changes (i.e., if proportional
to
the
current of the cell. Hence, decreases). Due to this, intensity
of
radiation
this cell provides the the flow of current through incident on the cell.
measure of light intensity the cell increase.
Thus, it converts electro
in terms of current.
magnetic energy in to
electrical energy.
2. It is a, passive This cell is a passive It is an active transducer.
transducer.
transducer.
3. They have a moderate They are highly sensitive They possess sensitivity
luminous sensitivity of 10- with small change in light of
100 uA/lm and 40-150 intensity they exhibit high 1 mA/lm.
uA/lm. A very high change
in
their
sensitivity of 20 A/lm can resistance.
also be achieved by photo
multiplier tube.

Photo emissive
Transducer

Photoconductive
transducer

Photovoltaic transducer

4. The response time of

these cells ' is less than
that of photoconductive
cells.

These cells possess a

These cells have very
short response time of 10- short response time of 1100 ps. These cells do
50 ps. The spectral
not respond to radiations response of these cells
having wave length less range from 200 nm
than 300 nm.
2000 nm

5. The spectral response

of these cells range from
visible to infrared region
up to 220 nm

Their spectral response These cells are sensitive

extend from thermal
to, a-rays, (3-rays, y-rays
radiation through visible, and Xrays.
IR,UV up to X-rays and yrays.

6. Photo emissive cells

possess good amount of
stability.

The characteristics of
Photovoltaic cells are also
photoconductive cells are stable but, they are
affected by temperature. seriously affected by
temperature. An increase
in temperature leads to a
rapid decrease in output
voltage of these cells,
usually few mV/C.

Ionization Transducers
These gauges are used for measurement of pressure
as low as 0.000001 micron (one billionth of mm of Hg).
The maximum pressure which an ionization gauge can
measure is about 1 micron.
The ionization gauge operates by using a stream of
electrons to ionize a sample of the remaining gas in the
space in which the pressure is being measured. The
positive gas ions are then attracted to a negatively
charged electrode, and the amount of current carried
by these ions is measured.

 A hot filament boils out an emission current of electrons which are

accelerated to a positively charged grid, usually in the form of a wire
spiral.
Some of the electrons pass through the spaces between the spiral
and find themselves in a retarding field which reverses their
direction before they strike the collector electrode.
However, while in the space between the grid and the collector, a
few of the electrons strike gas molecules, ionizing them by knocking
off one or more of the molecules' peripheral electrons.
The positive ions thus created are attracted to the collector; they
form a current (ion current) which is proportional to the pressure of
gas molecules and the emission current of electrons

Optical Encoders
Encoders and sensors allow control and feedback
loops to be established
Without the knowledge of position and/or speed it is
impossible to maintain accuracy and control
Information provided by encoders and sensors is
limited by various things including data transmission
frequency and also by the physical limits of the system
being controlled

Encoder Definitions

What is an encoder?

An encoder is a device which converts a mechanical information of a

shaft or position into an electrical signal

Encoder

Encoder Definitions
How is this accomplished?
As the code disc rotates, it shutters light from the LED and is received
and transmitted as square\sine waveforms

Receiver / Sensor
Code disc
Lens
Transmitter / LED
Shaft

Types of Encoders

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Incremental Encoders
Incremental

Produces electrical pulses or increments

with linear or rotary motion

Signals can be square or sinusoidal waves

Signals start over at power up, or after a

power failure. In other words, an incremental
encoder does not retain position after a
power cycle

Incremental encoders are typically used for

speed or applications that do not require
absolute position
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Absolute Encoders
Absolute

Code disc for absolute

encoders

LED

Lens

Provides a unique value for every shaft or

linear position

Absolute encoders retain their position

after a power cycle

Signals typically use SSI, parallel, or field

Bus interfaces (Ethernet/IP, EtherCAT,
Profinet, Devicenet, CANopen, Profibus,
etc)

Scanning mask
Code discPhotoElements

68

Absolute encoders are used in applications

were position information is necessary

 Incremental encoders emit pulses which determine how far

the device has rotated (if a rotary encoder), or moved (if a
linear encoder).
Incremental encoders may be rotary or linear. The first key
specification is the number of pulses per revolution (PPR) or
pulses per inch (or centimeter). PPR of 250, 512, 1000, 1024,
or even up to 100,000 pulses per revolution are available.
Absolute encoders are used to determine the absolute or
actual rotary or linear position of part of a machine.
Absolute encoders have multiple slit, photo-transistor, LED
sets -- most commonly 10 or 12
Resolutions of up to 1 part in 23 bits (0.00034 degrees) are
available in some rotary encoders. Other rotary encoders offer
multiple turn capability, with the ability to determine 1 part in
4096 per revolution over a total of 4096 revolutions.
Some linear encoders can measure movements as small as
10m to 10nm

Fundamental
Components
Light source(s)
LEDs or IR LEDs provide light source.

LEDs or IR LEDs provide light source.

Light is collimated using a lens to make the beams
parallel.

Photosensor(s)
Either Photodiode or Phototransistor.

Opaque disk (Code Disk)

One or more tracks
with slits to allow light
to pass through.

Incremental Disk

Absolute Disks

Binary

Gray Code

Applications
Any linear/rotary position/velocity sensing

DC Motor control robotics/automation

Mechanical computer mouse
Digital readouts for measurement gauges
Tachometers planes, trains and automobiles