EE 369

POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Lecture 10
Transformers, Load & Generator
Models, YBus
Tom Overbye and Ross Baldick

Announcements
Homework 7 is 5.8, 5.15, 5.17, 5.24, 5.27,
5.28, 5.29, 5.34, 5.37, 5.38, 5.43, 5.45; due
10/22.
Homework 8 is 3.1, 3.3, 3.4, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9,
3.10, 3.12, 3.13, 3.14, 3.16, 3.18; due 10/29.
Homework 9 is 3.20, 3.23, 3.25, 3.27, 3.28,
3.29, 3.35, 3.38, 3.39, 3.41, 3.44, 3.47; due
11/5.
Start reading Chapter 6 for lectures 11 and
12.
2

Load Tap Changing

Transformers
LTC transformers have tap ratios that can be

varied to regulate bus voltages.

The typical range of variation is 10% from the
nominal values, usually in 33 discrete steps
(0.0625% per step).
Because tap changing is a mechanical process,
LTC transformers usually have a 30 second
deadband to avoid repeated changes to minimize
wear and tear.
Unbalanced tap positions can cause circulating
VArs; that is, reactive power flowing from one
winding to the next in a three phase transformer.
3

Phase Shifting Transformers

Phase shifting transformers are used to
control the phase angle across the
transformer.
Since power flow through the transformer
depends upon phase angle, this allows the
transformer to regulate the power flow
through the transformer.
Phase shifters can be used to prevent
inadvertent "loop flow" and to prevent line
overloads by controlling power flow on lines.
4

Phase Shifting Transformer

PictureCosts about $7 millio
weighs about 1.2
million pounds

230 kV 800 MVA Phase Shifting

Transformer During factory
testing
Source: Tom Ernst, Minnesota Power

Autotransformers
Autotransformers are transformers in which
the primary and secondary windings are
coupled magnetically and electrically.
This results in lower cost, and smaller size and
weight.
The key disadvantage is loss of electrical
isolation between the voltage levels. This can
be an important safety consideration when a is
large. For example in stepping down 7160/240
V we do not ever want 7160 on the low side!
6

Load Models
Ultimate goal is to supply loads with electricity
at constant frequency and voltage.
Electrical characteristics of individual loads
matter, but usually they can only be estimated
actual loads are constantly changing, consisting of a
large number of individual devices,
only limited network observability of load
characteristics

Aggregate models are typically used for analysis

Two common models
constant power: Si = Pi + jQi
constant impedance: Si = |V|2 / Zi

Generator Models
Engineering models depend on the application.
Generators are usually synchronous machines:
important exception is case of wind generators,

For generators we will use two different models:

(in 369) a steady-state model, treating the generator as a
constant power source operating at a fixed voltage; this model
will be used for power flow and economic analysis.

(in 368L) a short term model treating the generator as a

constant voltage source behind a possibly time-varying
reactance.

Power Flow Analysis

We now have the necessary models to start to
develop the power system analysis tools.
The most common power system analysis tool is
the power flow (also known sometimes as the load
flow):
power flow determines how the power flows in a network
also used to determine all bus voltages and all currents,
because of constant power models, power flow is a
nonlinear analysis technique,
power flow is a steady-state analysis tool.

Linear versus Nonlinear

Systems
A function H is linear if
H(1 1 + 2 2) = 1H( 1) + 2H( 2)
That is:
1) the output is proportional to the input
2) the principle of superposition holds
Linear Example: y = H(x) = c x
y = c(x1+x2) = cx1 + c x2
Nonlinear Example: y = H(x) = c x2
y = c(x1+x2)2 c(x1)2 + c(x2)2
10

Linear Power System

Elements

Resistors, inductors, capacitors, independent

voltage sources, and current sources are linear
circuit elements:
1
V R I V j L I V
I
jC
Such systems may be analyzed by superposition.

11

Nonlinear Power System

Elements
Constant power loads and generator injections
are nonlinear and hence systems with these
elements cannot be analyzed (exactly) by
superposition.

Nonlinear problems can be very difficult to sol

and usually require an iterative approach.12

Nonlinear Systems May

Have Multiple Solutions or
No Solution

Example 1: x2 - 2 = 0 has solutions x = 1.414

Example 2: x2 + 2 = 0 has no real solution

f(x) = x2 - 2

two solutions where f(x) = 0

f(x) = x2 + 2

no solution to f(x) = 0
13

Multiple Solution Example 3

The dc system shown below has two solutions for a value of

load resistance that results in 18 W dissipation in the load:

The equation we're solving is:

That is, the 18 watt

load is an unknown
resistive load RLoad

A different
2
problem:
9 volts
2
I RLoad
RLoad 18 watts

What is the
1+RLoad
resistance to
One solution is RLoad 2
achieve maximu
14
Other solution is RLoad 0.5
PLoad?

Bus Admittance Matrix or

Ybus
First step in solving the power flow is to create
what is known as the bus admittance matrix,
often called the Ybus.
The Ybus gives the relationships between all
the bus current injections, I, and all the bus
voltages, V, I = Ybus V
The Ybus is developed by applying KCL at each
bus in the system to relate the bus current
injections, the bus voltages, and the branch
impedances and admittances.
15

Ybus Example

Determine the bus admittance matrix for the

shown below, assuming the current injection
bus i is Ii = IGi - IDi where IGi is the current injecti
into the bus from the generator and IDi is the
flowing into the load.

16

Ybus Example, contd

By KCL at bus 1 we have
I1 @ I G1 I D1
I1 I12 I13

V1 V2 V1 V3

ZA
ZB

I1 (V1 V2 )YA (V1 V3 )YB

1
(with Y j )
Zj

(YA YB )V1 YA V2 YB V3
Similarly
I 2 I 21 I 23 I 24
YA V1 (YA YC YD )V2 YC V3 YD V4

17

Ybus Example, contd

We can get similar relationships for buses 3 and 4

The results can then be expressed in matrix form
I Ybus V

Y A
YB
V1
I1
Y A YB
0
I

Y
Y

Y
V
A
A
C
D
C
2
2
D

YB
YC
YB YC
V3
I 3

0
I

Y
0
Y
V
4

D
D
4
For a system with n buses, Ybus is an n by n
symmetric matrix (i.e., one where Ybuskl = Ybuslk).
From now on, we will mostly write Y for Ybus,
18
but be careful to distinguish Ykl from line admit

Ybus General Form

The diagonal terms, Ykk, are the self
admittance terms, equal to the sum of the
admittances of all devices incident to bus k.
The off-diagonal terms, Ykl, are equal to the
negative of the admittance joining the two
buses.
With large systems Ybus is a sparse matrix
(that is, most entries are zero):
sparsity is key to efficient numerical calculation.

Shunt terms, such as in the equivalent line

model, only affect the diagonal terms.
19

Modeling Shunts in the Ybus

Ykc
Since I ij (Vi V j )Yk Vi
2
Ykc
Yii
Yk
2
1
1
Rk jX k Rk jX k
Note Yk

2
Z k Rk jX k Rk jX k Rk X k2
Yiifrom other lines

20

Two Bus System Example

Yc
(V1 V2 )
1
1
I1
V1 , where
12 j16.
Z
2
Z 0.03 j 0.04
I1
I
2

12 j15.9 12 j16

12

j
16
12

j
15.9

V1
V
2

21

Using the Ybus

If the voltages are known then we can solve for
the current injections:
Ybus V I
If the current injections are known then we can
solve for the voltages:
1
Ybus
I V Z bus I
1
where Z bus =Ybus
is the bus impedance matrix.

22

Solving for Bus Currents

For example, in previous case assume:
1.0
V
.

0.8 j 0.2
Then

1.0
5.60 j 0.70
12 j15.9 12 j16

12 j16 12 j15.9 0.8 j 0.2

5.58 j 0.88

Therefore the power injected at bus 1 is:

S1 V1 I1* 1.0 (5.60 j 0.70) 5.60 j 0.70
S2 V2 I 2* (0.8 j 0.2) ( 5.58 j 0.88) 4.64 j 0.41
23

Solving for Bus Voltages

As another example, in previous case assume
5.0
I
.

4.8
Then

0.0738 j 0.902
12 j15.9 12 j16 5.0

12 j16 12 j15.9 4.8

0.0738 j1.098

Therefore the power injected is

S1 V1 I1* (0.0738 j 0.902) 5 0.37 j 4.51
S2 V2 I 2* ( 0.0738 j1.098) ( 4.8) 0.35 j5.27
24

Power Flow Analysis

When analyzing power systems we know
neither the complex bus voltages nor the
complex current injections.
Rather, we know the complex power being
consumed by the load, and the power
being injected by the generators and their
voltage magnitudes.
Therefore we can not directly use the Y bus
equations, but rather must use the power
balance equations.
25

Power Balance Equations

From KCL we know at each bus i in an n bus system
the current injection, I i , must be equal to the current
that flows into the network
I i I Gi I Di

Iik

k 1

Since I = Ybus V we also know

I i I Gi I Di

YikVk

k 1

The network power injection is then Si Vi I i*

26

Power Balance Equations,

contd
*
n
n
Si

*
Vi I i

Vi

YikVk

* *
Vi YikVk
k 1

k 1

This is an equation with complex numbers.

Sometimes we would like an equivalent set of real
power equations. These can be derived by defining
Yik @ Gik jBik
Vi @ Vi e ji Vi i

ik @ i k
Recall e j cos j sin
27

Real Power Balance

Equations
n
n

Si Pi jQi Vi Yik*Vk* Vi Vk e jik (Gik jBik )

k 1

Vi Vk

k 1

k 1

(cos ik j sin ik )(Gik jBik )

Resolving into the real and imaginary parts

Pi
Qi

Vi Vk (Gik cosik Bik sinik ) PGi PDi

k 1
n

Vi Vk (Gik sinik Bik cosik ) QGi QDi

k 1

28

Power Flow Requires Iterative

Solution
In the power flow we assume we know Si and the
Ybus . We would like to solve for the values Vi .
The difficulty is that the following nonlinear
equation (solve for the values Vi given Si )
has no closed form solution:

* *
Y
V

V
Y
ik k
i ikVk
k 1

k 1
Rather, we must pursue an iterative approach.

Si Vi I i*

Vi

29

Gauss (or Jacobi) Iteration

There are a number of different iterative methods

we can use. We'll consider two: Gauss and Newton.

With the Gauss method we need to rewrite our
equation in an implicit form: x h( x ).
Our goal is to find x that satisfies this equation.
To seek a solution we first make an initial guess of x,
which we call x (0) ,and then iteratively plug into the righthand side to evaluate an updated guess x ( v 1) h( x ( v ) ),
until we are close to a "fixed point," x, such that x h ( x ).30

Gauss Example: To solve x x 1 0, rearrange in the form

x h ( x ), where h( x ) 1 x. Iteration is: x ( v 1) 1 x ( v ) .
That is, plug current iterate x ( v ) into: 1 x ( v ) ; the answer is
the next iterate x ( v 1) ; repeat. Matlab code: x=x0; x=1+sqrt(x).
Start at = 0, arbitrarily guess x (0) 1 and iterate:

0
1
2
3
4

x(v)
1
2
2.41421
2.55538
2.59805

5
6
7
8
9

x(v)
2.61185
2.61612
2.61744
2.61785
2.61798

31

Stopping Criteria
A key problem to address is when to stop the
iteration. With the Gauss iteration we stop when
with x ( v ) @x ( v 1) x ( v )

x ( v )

If x is a scalar this is clear, but if x is a vector we

need to generalize the absolute value by using a norm
x ( v )
Two common norms are the Euclidean & infinity
x 2

2
(

x
)
i
i 1

x max i xi
32

Gauss Power Flow

We first need to put the equation in the appropriate form,

with power flow expressed in the form V h(V ) :
Si Vi I i*
*
Si

Si*

*
Vi

*
Vi I i
n

* *
Y
V

V
Y
ik k
i ikVk
k 1

k 1

Vi

Vi

YikVk

k 1

YikVk

k 1

YiiVi

k 1,k i

1 S*i
Vi
* YikVk .

Yii V
k

1,
k

YikVk

33

Gauss Power Flow

1 S*i
We define hi (V ) by: hi (V ) * YikVk ,

Yii V
k

1,
k

Collect the entries hi (V ) together to form the vector h(V ).

Then we have expressed the power flow equations in
the form: V h(V ). (There are other ways we can express
the power flow equations in this form.)
Start with an initial guess V (0) and then update according to:
V (1) h (V (0) ),
V

(2)

h(V

(1)

),...

Continue until stopping criterion satisfied: V ( 1) V ( ) .

34