Mixed scanning model

The mixed scanning model, developed by Etzioni, takes a similar, but slightly different approach.
Etzioni (1968) suggested that organizations plan on two different levels: the tactical and the
strategic. He posited that organizations could accomplish this by essentially scanning the
environment on multiple levels and then choose different strategies and tactics to address what
they found there. While Lindbloms approach only operated on the functional level Etzioni
argued, the mixed scanning approach would allow planning organizations to work on both the
functional and more big-picture oriented levels. Lane explains though, that this model does not
do much more at improving public involvement since the planner or planning organization is still
at its focus and since its goal is not necessarily to achieve consensus or reconcile differing points
of view on a particular subject.
By the late 1960s and early 1970s, planners began to look for new approaches because as
happened nearly a decade before, it was realized that the current models were not necessarily
sufficient. As had happened before, a number of different models emerged. Lane (2005) notes
that it is most useful to think of these model as emerging from a social transformation planning
tradition as opposed to a social guidance one, so the emphasis is more bottom-up in nature than
it is top-down.

EBENEZER HOWARD GARDENS

Garden Cities of
Tomorrow
SIR EBENEZER
HOWARD
GARDEN CITIES
OF TOMORROW
SAHIL PAHAL
(10607)
DEEPANSHU
SINGH (10639 ...

Urban planning designs

settlements, from the
smallest towns to the
largest cities. Shown here
isHong Kongfrom Western
District overlooking
Kowloon, across
Victoria Harbour.

Bargaining model
The bargaining model views planning as the result of give and take on the part of a number of
interests who are all involved in the process. It argues that this bargaining is the best way to
conduct planning within the bounds of legal and political institutions.
The most interesting part of this theory of planning is that makes public participation the central
dynamic in the decision-making process.
Decisions are made first and foremost by the public, and the planner plays a more minor role.

THEORY OF URBAN DESIGN

Oxford English Dictionary:

Two meanings of space:
1.
Time or duration
2.
Area or extension (more common definition)

In physics, space has three dimensions (x-y-z axes) and

is considered as a volume not an area.
Sir Isaac Newton (17th C) elaborated that space is
absolute.proper to itself..and independent of the
objects it contains (objects fit into space an d not viceversa)

I. CONCEPT OF SPACE
TRADITIONAL DEFINITIONS

NEW APPROACHES

1.
2.

Two main categories of space exist:

Mental Space (experiential)
Physical Space (existential)
The notion of space is said to originate in an
observers mind and is later imposed as a structure
on the physical world.mental space is an image of
physical space
The concept of space differs from culture to culture
Different cultures have characteristic spatial designs
as expressed in their cities, buildings, and art(ref.
Dogon villages; japanese Mandala e.t.c)
but space itself is universal! (transcends culture)

Aesthetics in urban design refers to the creative arrangement

of the elements of a town in a beautiful and functional manner.

Order and beauty in a town are a necessity, not an after

thought..they are as much a prerequisite to human health
as is fresh air.

II. THE CONCEPT OF

AESTHETICS

Extracted form: harmony between buildings and

nature.e.g consider basic slopes, angle of hills, vegetation/tree canopies, and

rock outcrops. Reflects dominant and pervasive features of nature

Vistas and site supremacy:

Expression:

Entrance/Approach: profound impact of cities on the visitor

Colour and light:

Water: proximity to water and possible interplay a natural

Geometry: form and relationships of angles, lines, curves

Human scale: how each inhabitant would use space and

view of landscape from the

citybeautifully framed countryside (panorama)
space markers /symbolgy/ ornamentation/detail e.g
towers and minarets; landmarks; accent of urban landscape and skyline
who traverses long, crowded streets/water.

choice of colour to reflect aesthetic

sensibility; quality of natural light an important visual factor.

asset; water edges, harbours, shorelines, islands, canals e.t.c

e.t.c

how they would feel in it.

SITE-CITY-OBSERVER
RELATIONSHIPS
(VIEWING CITY FROM SURROUNDING AND VICEVERSA)

Physical Image v/s Functional Image

Imageability:

Form-Function Relationship

Main Variations of urban form and structure:

Linear, radial,

grid, cluster e.t.c

Objectives of urban form

(includes growth; Meaning and

identity e.t.c)

Growth and decline

ASPECTS OF URBAN FORM

(SEE BUR 203 NOTES)

EXISTING THEORIES AND

PRACTICE

Theories that have motivated and still inform the

construction of cities are both normative and
functional.

Normative theories attempt to specify

"goodness.what is good city form?... and
discuss in detail the aspects that create good
cities..Prescriptive..What cities ought to be!

Functional theories attempt to explain how

cities perform by concentrating on city form
processes, spatial and social structure, and form
modelsDescriptiveWhat cities are!

NORMATIVE THEORIES
(SELECTED EXAMPLES)

It assertions that the form of a permanent

1.settlement
THE COSMIC
should be aMODEL
magical model of the
universe and its gods.

Such a crystalline city has all of its parts fused into

a perfectly ordered whole and change is allowed to
happen only in a rhythmically controlled manner

specific phenomena included: such as returning,

natural items, celestial measurement, fixing
location, centeredness, boundary definition, earth
images, land geometry, directionality, place
consciousness, and numerology

2. THE MACHINE MODEL

The analogy between city and machine has a long

history (ref. Egyptian and classical per strigas, Ron
Herons insect city; archigram movement; plug-in concept)

it occurs often when there is no long-term goal in

mind but the settlement has to be created
hurriedly and its future growth will be determined
by still unforeseen forces

Its form requires a few simple rules of

urbanization and the outcome is factual,
functional and devoid of the mystery of the
universe.

Among its attributes are convenience, speed,

flexibility, legibility, equality, and speculation.

3. THE ORGANIC MODEL

The analogy between city and living organism is fairly

recent arising with the growth of biology in the 18th
and 19th centuries (ref. metabolists)

Model is critical of others, especially the machine model

with its "simple grids" as static

It asserts that an organism:

- is an autonomous being, with a definite boundary and is of a specific
size.
-does not change merely by adding parts but through reorganization as
it reaches limits or thresholds.
- contains differentiated parts but form and function are always linked.
- is homeostatic, self-repairing and regulating toward a dynamic
balance.

- undergoes cycles of life and death as is rhythmic passage from

one state to another.

ORGANIC MODEL (CONTD)

From this flows the notion of the form of the organic city:
- A separate spatial and social unit made up internally
of highly connected places and people.
-A healthy community of heterogeneous and diverse
nature
- The micro unit is the neighborhood, a small residential
area, defined by Clarence Perry in 1929 as the support
area for an elementary school, to which children, the
most vulnerable of the human species, can safely walk.
- Like organisms, settlements are born, grow and
mature, and if further growth is necessary, a new entity
has to be formed.Thus there are states of optimum size,
beyond which pathological conditions ensue.

ORGANIC MODEL (CONTD)

- Greeenbelts not only ensure an intimate contact
with nature but enclose healthy growth.

-A model with typical physical forms, among which

radial patterns, anti-geometrical layouts, and a
proclivity for natural materials.
- Often the organic idea is extended regionally to
connect settlements to valleys, trails and other
extended natural systems.
-There is an attraction to small-scale modes of
production or services as opposed to large-scale
synthetic processes. Often the model aligns itself
with a socio-economic philosophy that sees
increases in urban value as the result of
communal rather than individual endeavor.

This relates new development to an analysis of existing urban

structure.

A prominent concept of this canon is that of serial vision . the

sequential and unfolding nature of urban experience
(foreground/middle ground/background), with its
corners, divisions/modules, protrusions, and recesses/setbacks
e.t.c creating aspects of interest and surprise.

Context is something that has no clear or common spatial

definition; thus the impact of contextualism will vary with
geographical location and cultural influence.

The mainstream urban design has been strongly influenced by

contextualism in terms of a new respect for the overall form of the
traditional urban street and block and a concern for public realm

(ref:Imageability (Kevin Lynch); permeability (Jane Jacobs); adaptability/robustness

(Standford Anderson). These ideas were later published as Responsive
Environments (Alcock et al)

4. THE CONTEXTUAL MODEL

This is whereby urban design is defined according to the needs

of the epoch.. where the tools and concepts are used
selectively and exclusively in regard to the locality.

The danger with this model lies in:

-Likely loss of understanding of the larger processes affecting
urban form
- Possible inability of making informed decisions at urban scales
- Failure to embrace environmental disciplines that are
currently excluded and isolated from mainstream urban
design.

5. THE PRAGMATIC MODEL

6. THE CONSTRUCTIVIST
MODEL
This explores techniques of form to create urban

interventions that express the spatial and temporal

complexity of a given age.

Deconstructionists are constructivists who use

unconventional techniques of form to express the essential
fragmentation in city environments.

Ref.
Peter Eisenman applies an approach that is more mathematical
and rational in nature, which tends to reject any hint of historical
contextualism.
Rem Koolhaas makes free use of the typologies of modernism,
recombining them in new and ironic ways
Bernard Tschumi, exploits the random collisions that results from
the layering of unrelated activity frameworks.
Frank Ghery and Zaha Hadid use unconventional techniques of
form to express order among chaos of modern cities

This was dedicated to exploring new

interwoven urban structures that would allow
opportunities for social encounter/contact and
exchange whose end result is a humanising
influence.

The interpretation of this philosophy,

however, varied widely in practice: low-, medium-,
and high- density; vehicular and pedestrian segregation e.t.c

( Ref:Aldo van Eyck, Ralph erskine, Giancarlo De Carlo)

7. FUNCTIONALIST MODEL

This offered a morphological/structural approach to urban design

that related new urban development to the historical structure of
the city and typologies of urban space.

The figure-ground drawing was widely used as a design tool.

As critical reconstruction, this method was used to maintain and

restore the traditional 19th century street pattern and form of the
urban block, street and square, without constraining the
contemporary architectural expression of new building additions.

This was not a plea for unthinking preservation or for regarding

the city as a museum; rather, the aim was to explore the deep
structure inherent in building types and how built forms
accommodate changing, living uses over time.

(ref. Robert Venturi, Aldo Rossi, Scott Brown, Colin Rowe, Rob & Leon
Krier)

8. RATIONALIST MODEL

These are founded on the following characteristics:

Urban history:

Urban Ecology: city is regarded as an ecology of people,

the city is regarded as a unique historic

process... explaining cities as derivative of their own culture (ref
Sjoberg, Rapoport).

each social group occupying space according to economic

position and class. (Ref. Burgess [concentric model], Weber,
Simmel and Spengler)

City economy: regards the city as an economic engine in

which space, unlike in the previous category, is both a

resource and an additional cost imposed on the economy for
production or consumption.location of cities an
optimization of raw materials, labour and market locations
(ref. Isard,Von Thunen,Christaller)

FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTIVE
THEORIES

FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTIVE THEORIES

(CONTD)
Six (6) Functional Theories founded on the following
characteristics;
a.Urban History
b.Urban Ecology
c.City Economy
d.Urban Communication
e.Urban Politics/Governance
f.Urban Chaos

URBAN PLANNING APPROACHES

The modern origins of urban planning lie in the movement for urban reform that
arose as a reaction against the disorder of the industrial city in the mid-19th
century.
Urban planning exists in various forms and it addresses many different issues.[2]
Urban planning can include

URBAN RENEWAL, by adapting urban planning methods to existing cities

suffering from decline. Alternatively, it can concern the massive challenges
associated with urban growth, particularly in the Global South.[3]
In the late 20th century, the term SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT has come to
represent an ideal outcome in the sum of all planning goals.[4]

There are eight (8) procedural theories of

planning that remain the principal theories
of planning procedure today:
1.the rational-comprehensive approach,
2.the incremental approach,
3. the transactive approach,
4. the communicative approach,
5.the advocacy approach,
6.the equity approach,
7.the radical approach,
8.the humanist or phenomenological approach.

Following the rise of empiricism during the industrial revolution, the rational
planning movement (18901960) emphasized the improvement of the built
environment based on key spatial factors. Examples of these factors include:
exposure to direct sunlight, movement of vehicular traffic, standardized housing
units, and proximity to green-space.[5] To identify and design for these spatial
factors, rational planning relied on a small group of highly specialized technicians,
including;
1.architects,
2.urban designers,
3. and engineers.
4.Other, less common, but nonetheless influential groups included governmental
officials, private developers, and landscape architects.
Through the strategies associated with these professions, the rational planning
movement developed a collection of techniques for quantitative assessment,
predictive modeling, and design. Due to the high level of training required to
grasp these methods, however, rational planning fails to provide an avenue for
public participation. In both theory and practice, this shortcoming opened rational
planning to claims of elitism and social insensitivity.

Rational-comprehensive planning theory Public

interest Planning Expertise In comprehensiverational planning the public interest as the goal of
planning is defi ned within the contest of planning
expertise

Synoptic planning
After the fall of blueprint planning in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the synoptic model began to
emerge as a dominant force in planning. Lane (2005) describes synoptic planning as having four
central elements:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

an enhanced emphasis on the specification of goals and targets;

an emphasis on quantitative analysis and predication of the environment;
a concern to identify and evaluate alternative policy options; and
the evaluation of means against ends .

Public participation was first introduced into this model and it was generally integrated into the system
process described above. However, the problem was that the idea of a single public interest still
dominated attitudes, effectively devaluing the importance of participation because it suggests the idea
that the public interest is relatively easy to find and only requires the most minimal form of
participation.[10]
Blueprint and synoptic planning both employ what is called the rational paradigm of planning. The
rational model is perhaps the most widely accepted model among planning practitioners and scholars,
and is considered by many to be the orthodox view of planning. As its name clearly suggests, the goal
of the rational model is to make planning as rational and systematic as possible. Proponents of this
paradigm would generally come up with a list of steps that the planning process can be at least
relatively neatly sorted out into and that planning practitioners should go through in order when setting